1- Ismet Inonu (1st) (Biography)
Oct 1923 - March 1924
2 - Ismet Inonu (2nd)
March 1924 - Nov 1924
3 - Ali Fethi Okyar
Nov 1924 - March 1925
4 - Ismet Inonu (3rd)
March 1925 - Nov 1927
5 - Ismet Inonu (4th)
Nov 1927 - Sep 1930
6 - Ismet Inonu (5th)
Sep 1930 - May 1931
7 - Ismet Inonu (6th)
May 1931 - March 1935
8 - Ismet Inonu (7th)
March 1935 - Nov 1937
9 - Celal Bayar (1st)
Nov 1937 - Nov 1938
10 - Celal Bayar (2nd)
Nov 1938 - Jan 1939
11 - Dr. Refik Saydam (1st)
Jan 1939 - April 1939
12 - Dr. Refik Saydam (2nd)
April 193 - July 1942
13 - Sukru Saracoglu (1st)
July 1942 - March 1943
14 - Sukru Saracoglu (2nd)
March 1943 - Aug 1946
The Multiparty Era
15 - Recep Peker
Aug 1946 - Sep 1947
16 - Hasan Saka (1st)
Sep 1947 - June 1948
17 - Hasan Saka (2nd)
June 1948 - Jan 1949
18 - Semsettin Gunaltay
Jan 1949 - May 1950
19 - Adnan Menderes (1st) (Biography)
May 1950 - March 1951
20 - Adnan Menderes (2nd)
March 1951 - May 1954
21 - Adnan Menderes (3rd)
May 1954 - Dec 1955
22 - Adnan Menderes (4th)
Dec 1955 - Nov 1957
23 - Adnan Menderes (5th)
Nov 1957 - May 1960
24 - Cemal Gursel (1st) (Biography)
May 1960 - Jan 1961
25 - Cemal Gursel (2nd)
Jan 1961 - Nov 1961
26 - Ismet Inonu (8th) (Biography)
Nov 1961 - June 1962
27 - Ismet Inonu (9th)
June 1962 - Dec 1963
28 - Ismet Inonu (10th)
Dec 1963 - Feb 1965
29 - S. Hayri Urguplu
Feb 1965 - Oct 1965
30 - Suleyman Demirel (1st) (Biography)
Oct 1965 - Nov 1969
31 - Suleyman Demirel (2nd)
Nov 1969 - March 1970
32 - Süleyman Demirel (3rd)
March 1970 - March 1971
33 - Nihat Erim (1st)
March 1971 - Dec 1971
34 - Nihat Erim (2nd)
Dec 1971 - May 1972
35 - Ferit Melen
May 1972 - April 1973
36 - Naim Talu
April 1973 - Jan 1974
37 - Bulent Ecevit (1st) (Biography)
Jan 1974 - Nov 1974
38 - Sadi Irmak
Nov 1974 - March 1975
39 - Suleyman Demirel (4th) (Biography)
March 1975 - June 1977
40 - Bulent Ecevit (2nd)
June 1977 - Jan 1978
41 - Suleyman Demirel (5th)
July 1977 - Jan 1978
42 - Bulent Ecevit (3rd)
Jan 1978 - Nov 1979
43 - Suleyman Demirel (6th)
Nov 1979 - Sep 1980
44 - Bulent Ulusu
Sep 1980 - Dec 1983
45 - Turgut Ozal (1st) (Biography)
Dec 1983 - Dec 1987
46 - Turgut Ozal (2nd)
Dec 1987 - Nov 1989
47 - Yildirim Akbulut
Nov 1989 - June 1991
48 - Mesut Yilmaz (1st) (Biography)
June 1991 - Nov 1991
49 - Suleyman Demirel (7th)
Nov 1991 - May 1993
50 - Tansu Ciller (Biography)
July 1993 - October 1995
51 - Tansu Ciller
October 1995 - November 1995
52 - Tansu Ciller
November 1995 - March 1996
53 - Mesut Yilmaz (2nd) (Biography)
March 1996 - June 1996
54 - Necmettin Erbakan (Biography)
June 1996 - June 1997
55 - Mesut Yilmaz (3rd)
June 1997 - January 1999
56 - Bulent Ecevit (4th) (Biography)
11 January 1999 - 28 May 1999
57 - Bulent Ecevit (5th)
28 May 1999 - 18 November 2002
58 - Abdullah Gul (Biography)
18 November 2002 - 14 March 2003
59 - Recep Tayyip Erdogan (1st) (Biography)
14 March 2003 - 22 July 2007
60 - Recep Tayyip Erdogan (2nd)
22 July 2007 - Today
Monday, January 26, 2009
Turkish National Anthem
Turkish Flag
Lyrics by M. Akif Ersoy, 1921
Music composed by Zeki Ungor, 1930
Fear not, the crimson flag, waving in these dawns will never fade
Before the last hearth that is burning in my nation vanishes.
That is my nation's star, it will shine;
That is mine, it belongs solely to my nation.
Oh coy crescent do not frown for I am ready to sacrifice myself for you!
Please smile upon my heroic nation, why that anger, why that rage?
If you frown, our blood shed for you will not be worthy.
Freedom is the right of my nation who worships God and seeks what is right.
Click here to listen Listen to the Turkish National Anthem (wav format, 796Kb)
The original Turkish National Anthem (Istiklal Marsi in Turkish), written by M. Akif Ersoy and officially adopted by the Parliament on 12th of March 1921, is composed by 10 verse but only the first two of them are sung during ceremonies. Here is the original Turkish copy below in full (Turkish letters are converted into Latin letters).
Korkma, sonmez bu safaklarda yuzen al sancak
Sonmeden yurdumun ustunde tuten en son ocak.
O benim milletimin yildizidir, parlayacak!
O benimdir, o benim milletimindir ancak!
Catma, kurban olayim, cehreni ey nazli hilal!
Kahraman irkima bir gul... ne bu siddet, bu celal?
Sana olmaz dokulen kanlarimiz sonra helal.
Hakkidir, Hakk'a tapan milletimin istiklal.
Ben ezelden beridir hur yasadim, hur yasarim;
Hangi cilgin bana zincir vuracakmis? Sasarim!
Kukremis sel gibiyim, bendimi cigner, asarim.
Yirtarim daglari, enginlere sigmam, tasarim.
Garbin afakini sarmissa celik zirhli duvar.
Benim iman dolu gogsum gibi serhaddim var.
Ulusun, korkma! Nasil boyle bir imani bogar,
'Medeniyet' dedigin tek disi kalmis canavar?
Arkadas, yurduma alcaklari ugratma sakin;
Siper et govdeni, dursun bu hayasizca akin.
Dogacaktir sana va'dettigi gunler Hakk'in,
Kim bilir, belki yarin, belki yarindan da yakin.
Bastigin yerleri 'toprak' diyerek gecme, tani!
Dusun altindaki binlerce kefensiz yatani.
Sen sehid oglusun, incitme, yaziktir, atani.
Verme, dunyalari alsan da bu cennet vatani.
Kim bu cennet vatanin ugruna olmaz ki feda?
Suheda fiskiracak topragi siksan, suheda!
Cani, canani, butun varimi alsin da Huda,
Etmesin tek vatanimdan beni dunyada cuda.
Ruhumun senden ilahi, sudur ancak emeli:
Degmesin ma' bedimin gogsune na-mahrem eli!
Bu ezanlar ki sehadetleri dinin temeli,
Ebedi yurdumun ustunde benim inlemeli.
O zaman vecd ile bin secde eder varsa tasim.
Her cerihamdan, ilahi, bosanip kanli yasim,
Fiskirir ruh-i mucerred gibi yerden na'sim;
O zaman yukselerek arsa deger belki basim!
Dalgalan sen de safaklar gibi ey sanli hilal!
Olsun artik dokulen kanlarimin hepsi helal.
Ebediyyen sana yok, irkima yok izmihlal;
Hakkidir, hur yasamis, bayragimin hurriyet,
Hakkidir, Hakk'a tapan milletimin istiklal!
Lyrics by M. Akif Ersoy, 1921
Music composed by Zeki Ungor, 1930
Fear not, the crimson flag, waving in these dawns will never fade
Before the last hearth that is burning in my nation vanishes.
That is my nation's star, it will shine;
That is mine, it belongs solely to my nation.
Oh coy crescent do not frown for I am ready to sacrifice myself for you!
Please smile upon my heroic nation, why that anger, why that rage?
If you frown, our blood shed for you will not be worthy.
Freedom is the right of my nation who worships God and seeks what is right.
Click here to listen Listen to the Turkish National Anthem (wav format, 796Kb)
The original Turkish National Anthem (Istiklal Marsi in Turkish), written by M. Akif Ersoy and officially adopted by the Parliament on 12th of March 1921, is composed by 10 verse but only the first two of them are sung during ceremonies. Here is the original Turkish copy below in full (Turkish letters are converted into Latin letters).
Korkma, sonmez bu safaklarda yuzen al sancak
Sonmeden yurdumun ustunde tuten en son ocak.
O benim milletimin yildizidir, parlayacak!
O benimdir, o benim milletimindir ancak!
Catma, kurban olayim, cehreni ey nazli hilal!
Kahraman irkima bir gul... ne bu siddet, bu celal?
Sana olmaz dokulen kanlarimiz sonra helal.
Hakkidir, Hakk'a tapan milletimin istiklal.
Ben ezelden beridir hur yasadim, hur yasarim;
Hangi cilgin bana zincir vuracakmis? Sasarim!
Kukremis sel gibiyim, bendimi cigner, asarim.
Yirtarim daglari, enginlere sigmam, tasarim.
Garbin afakini sarmissa celik zirhli duvar.
Benim iman dolu gogsum gibi serhaddim var.
Ulusun, korkma! Nasil boyle bir imani bogar,
'Medeniyet' dedigin tek disi kalmis canavar?
Arkadas, yurduma alcaklari ugratma sakin;
Siper et govdeni, dursun bu hayasizca akin.
Dogacaktir sana va'dettigi gunler Hakk'in,
Kim bilir, belki yarin, belki yarindan da yakin.
Bastigin yerleri 'toprak' diyerek gecme, tani!
Dusun altindaki binlerce kefensiz yatani.
Sen sehid oglusun, incitme, yaziktir, atani.
Verme, dunyalari alsan da bu cennet vatani.
Kim bu cennet vatanin ugruna olmaz ki feda?
Suheda fiskiracak topragi siksan, suheda!
Cani, canani, butun varimi alsin da Huda,
Etmesin tek vatanimdan beni dunyada cuda.
Ruhumun senden ilahi, sudur ancak emeli:
Degmesin ma' bedimin gogsune na-mahrem eli!
Bu ezanlar ki sehadetleri dinin temeli,
Ebedi yurdumun ustunde benim inlemeli.
O zaman vecd ile bin secde eder varsa tasim.
Her cerihamdan, ilahi, bosanip kanli yasim,
Fiskirir ruh-i mucerred gibi yerden na'sim;
O zaman yukselerek arsa deger belki basim!
Dalgalan sen de safaklar gibi ey sanli hilal!
Olsun artik dokulen kanlarimin hepsi helal.
Ebediyyen sana yok, irkima yok izmihlal;
Hakkidir, hur yasamis, bayragimin hurriyet,
Hakkidir, Hakk'a tapan milletimin istiklal!
Turkish Tax System
The Turkish tax regime is an important part of the economy and can be divided into 3 main categories:
* Income Taxes, such as Individual Income Tax and Corporate Income Tax
* Taxes on Expenditure, such as Value Added Tax or Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax or Stamp Tax
* Taxes on Wealth, such as Property Tax or Inheritance and Gift Tax
Income Taxes
Income taxes in Turkey are levied upon the income, both domestic and foreign, of individuals and corporations resident in Turkey. Non-residents earning income in Turkey through employment, ownership of property, carrying on a business or other activities providing an income are also subject to taxation, but only on their income derived in Turkey.
Individual Income Tax
The limited tax liability covers trade or business income from a permanent establishment, salaries for work done in Turkey (regardless of where paid or whether or not remitted to Turkey), rental income from real property in Turkey, Turkish derived interest, and income from the sale of patents, copyrights and similar intangible assets. The personal income tax rate varies from 15% to 40%.
Corporate Income Tax
For tax purposes, companies are grouped as limited liability companies (corporations and limited companies) and personal companies (limited and ordinary partnerships). Corporate tax applies to limited liability companies. State economic enterprises and business entities owned by societies, foundations and local authorities are also subject to corporation tax.
Whether a company is subject to full or limited tax liability depends on its status of residence. A company, whose statutory domicile or place of management are established in Turkey (resident company), will have full tax liability; in this case, worldwide income is taxable. If a non-resident company conducts business through a branch or a joint venture, it will have limited tax liability; i.e. fully subject to corporate tax on profits earned in Turkey on an annual basis. If there is no presence in Turkey, withholding tax will generally be charged on income earned; for example, for services provided in Turkey. However, if there is an avoidance of double taxation treaty, reduced rates of withholding tax may apply.
The basic corporate income tax rate levied on business profits is 30% in Turkey, but for 2006 it's planned to take it down to 20%. Dividend withholding tax is also applied in the event of profit being distributed to share holders. For resident corporations, tax is levied on worldwide income, but credit is given for foreign tax payable in respect of income from foreign sources (up to the amount of Turkish corporate income tax, i.e. 30%).
Corporations are required to pay Advance Corporate Income Tax based on their quarterly profits at the rate of 30%. Advance Corporate Income Taxes paid during the tax year are offset against the ultimate Corporate Income Tax liability of the company, which is determined in the related year's Corporate Income Tax return.
Corporate entities having their statutory domicile and place of management outside Turkey, but established in Turkey in the form of a branch are subject to tax on an annual return based on income received from the permanent establishment in Turkey.
From the non-resident's point of view, many payments abroad including those for professional services and technical assistance, royalties and rentals are subject to withholding tax at rates varying between 10% to 25%. In this regard, countries having avoidance of double taxation treaties with Turkey have considerable advantages. Turkey has signed such treaties with 60 countries and the investors of these countries can benefit from a reduction in withholding taxes. Countries with which Turkey has bilateral tax treaty agreements came into force as of April 2005 are as follows:
Albania, Algeria, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, China, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Kuwait, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Macedonia, Malaysia, Moldova, Mongolia, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia (but only air transportation activities), Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sudan, Sweden, Syria, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, UK, USA, Uzbekistan.
Taxes on Expenditure
Value Added Tax (VAT)
The VAT (KDV in Turkish) rates vary between 1% - 18% but it's generally applied as 18%. VAT payable on local purchases and on imports is regarded as "input VAT" and VAT calculated and collected on sales is considered as "output VAT". Input VAT is offset against output VAT in the VAT return filed at the related tax office by the 20th of the following month. If output VAT is in excess of input VAT, the excess amount is paid to the related tax office. On the contrary, if input VAT exceeds the output VAT, the balance is carried forward to the following months to be offset against future output VAT. There is no cash refund to recover excess input VAT, except for exportation.
There is also a so-called reverse charge VAT mechanism, which requires the calculation of VAT by resident companies on payments sent abroad. Under this mechanism, VAT is calculated and paid to the related tax office by the Turkish company on behalf of the foreign company. The local company treats this VAT as input VAT and offsets it in the same month. This VAT does not create a tax burden for the Turkish and the non-resident company, except for its cash flow effect.
Special Consumption Tax
Special Consumption Tax (ÖTV in Turkish) was implemented in August 2002 by abolishing 16 different indirect taxes and funds in order to make the direct taxation system becoming in line with the European Union directives. Unlike VAT, which is applied on each delivery, ÖTV is charged only once. There are mainly 4 different product groups that are subject to ÖTV at different tax rates:
* Petroleum products, natural gas, lubricating oil, solvents and derivatives of solvents
* Automobiles and other vehicles, motorcycles, planes, helicopters, yachts
* Tobacco and tobacco products, alcoholic beverages
* Luxury products
Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax
Banking and Insurance company transactions remain exempt from VAT, but are subject to a Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax of 5%, due on the gains by the banks for their loan interest or transactions for example. The purchase of goods and services by banks and insurance companies are subject to VAT but is considered as an expense or cost for recovery purposes.
Stamp Tax
Stamp duty applies to a wide range of documents, including contracts, agreements, notes payable, capital contributions, letters of credit, letters of guarantee, financial statements and payrolls. Stamp duty is levied as a percentage of the value of the document at rates ranging from 0.15% to 0.75%. In the event of absence of a monetary value on the agreement, Stamp Tax would be calculated on a lump sum basis and paid in New Liras. Stamp Tax is payable by the parties who sign a document. Each and every signed copy of the agreement is separately subject to Stamp Tax.
Taxes on Wealth
Property Tax
Property taxes are paid each year on the tax values of land and buildings at rates varying from 0.1% to 0.6%. In the case of the sale of property, a 1.5% levy is paid on the sales value by both the buyer and the seller. The rate is also applied as 1.5% if the property is contributed as capital-in-kind. The rates are applied twice for property located in the Metropolitan Municipality areas.
Buildings and lands owned in Turkey are subject to real estate tax at the following rates:
* Residences 0.1%
* Other buildings 0.2%
* Land 0.1%
* Vacant land (but allocated for construction purposes) 0.3%
* Farming lands 0%
Inheritance and Gift Tax
Items acquired as gifts or through inheritance are subject to taxes between 1% and 30% of the item's appraised value. Tax paid in a foreign country on inherited property is deducted from the taxable value of the asset. Inheritance tax is payable over the period of three years and in two installments per year.
Withholding Tax
Under the Turkish tax system, certain taxes are collected through withholding by the payers in order to secure the collection of taxes. These include income tax on salaries of employees, lease payments to individual landlords, independent professional service fee payments to resident individuals, and royalty, license and service fee payments to non residents. Companies in Turkey are responsible to withhold such taxes on their payments and declare them through their withholding tax returns.
Environmental Tax
Municipalities are authorized to collect an Environmental Tax as a contribution towards the financing of certain services such as garbage collection. This tax is levied at scheduled fixed amounts that vary according to the location of the house or office. This tax is paid thru water bill of the property by the person who lives or occupies that house or office.
* Income Taxes, such as Individual Income Tax and Corporate Income Tax
* Taxes on Expenditure, such as Value Added Tax or Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax or Stamp Tax
* Taxes on Wealth, such as Property Tax or Inheritance and Gift Tax
Income Taxes
Income taxes in Turkey are levied upon the income, both domestic and foreign, of individuals and corporations resident in Turkey. Non-residents earning income in Turkey through employment, ownership of property, carrying on a business or other activities providing an income are also subject to taxation, but only on their income derived in Turkey.
Individual Income Tax
The limited tax liability covers trade or business income from a permanent establishment, salaries for work done in Turkey (regardless of where paid or whether or not remitted to Turkey), rental income from real property in Turkey, Turkish derived interest, and income from the sale of patents, copyrights and similar intangible assets. The personal income tax rate varies from 15% to 40%.
Corporate Income Tax
For tax purposes, companies are grouped as limited liability companies (corporations and limited companies) and personal companies (limited and ordinary partnerships). Corporate tax applies to limited liability companies. State economic enterprises and business entities owned by societies, foundations and local authorities are also subject to corporation tax.
Whether a company is subject to full or limited tax liability depends on its status of residence. A company, whose statutory domicile or place of management are established in Turkey (resident company), will have full tax liability; in this case, worldwide income is taxable. If a non-resident company conducts business through a branch or a joint venture, it will have limited tax liability; i.e. fully subject to corporate tax on profits earned in Turkey on an annual basis. If there is no presence in Turkey, withholding tax will generally be charged on income earned; for example, for services provided in Turkey. However, if there is an avoidance of double taxation treaty, reduced rates of withholding tax may apply.
The basic corporate income tax rate levied on business profits is 30% in Turkey, but for 2006 it's planned to take it down to 20%. Dividend withholding tax is also applied in the event of profit being distributed to share holders. For resident corporations, tax is levied on worldwide income, but credit is given for foreign tax payable in respect of income from foreign sources (up to the amount of Turkish corporate income tax, i.e. 30%).
Corporations are required to pay Advance Corporate Income Tax based on their quarterly profits at the rate of 30%. Advance Corporate Income Taxes paid during the tax year are offset against the ultimate Corporate Income Tax liability of the company, which is determined in the related year's Corporate Income Tax return.
Corporate entities having their statutory domicile and place of management outside Turkey, but established in Turkey in the form of a branch are subject to tax on an annual return based on income received from the permanent establishment in Turkey.
From the non-resident's point of view, many payments abroad including those for professional services and technical assistance, royalties and rentals are subject to withholding tax at rates varying between 10% to 25%. In this regard, countries having avoidance of double taxation treaties with Turkey have considerable advantages. Turkey has signed such treaties with 60 countries and the investors of these countries can benefit from a reduction in withholding taxes. Countries with which Turkey has bilateral tax treaty agreements came into force as of April 2005 are as follows:
Albania, Algeria, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, China, Denmark, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Kuwait, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Macedonia, Malaysia, Moldova, Mongolia, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia (but only air transportation activities), Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sudan, Sweden, Syria, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, UK, USA, Uzbekistan.
Taxes on Expenditure
Value Added Tax (VAT)
The VAT (KDV in Turkish) rates vary between 1% - 18% but it's generally applied as 18%. VAT payable on local purchases and on imports is regarded as "input VAT" and VAT calculated and collected on sales is considered as "output VAT". Input VAT is offset against output VAT in the VAT return filed at the related tax office by the 20th of the following month. If output VAT is in excess of input VAT, the excess amount is paid to the related tax office. On the contrary, if input VAT exceeds the output VAT, the balance is carried forward to the following months to be offset against future output VAT. There is no cash refund to recover excess input VAT, except for exportation.
There is also a so-called reverse charge VAT mechanism, which requires the calculation of VAT by resident companies on payments sent abroad. Under this mechanism, VAT is calculated and paid to the related tax office by the Turkish company on behalf of the foreign company. The local company treats this VAT as input VAT and offsets it in the same month. This VAT does not create a tax burden for the Turkish and the non-resident company, except for its cash flow effect.
Special Consumption Tax
Special Consumption Tax (ÖTV in Turkish) was implemented in August 2002 by abolishing 16 different indirect taxes and funds in order to make the direct taxation system becoming in line with the European Union directives. Unlike VAT, which is applied on each delivery, ÖTV is charged only once. There are mainly 4 different product groups that are subject to ÖTV at different tax rates:
* Petroleum products, natural gas, lubricating oil, solvents and derivatives of solvents
* Automobiles and other vehicles, motorcycles, planes, helicopters, yachts
* Tobacco and tobacco products, alcoholic beverages
* Luxury products
Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax
Banking and Insurance company transactions remain exempt from VAT, but are subject to a Banking and Insurance Transaction Tax of 5%, due on the gains by the banks for their loan interest or transactions for example. The purchase of goods and services by banks and insurance companies are subject to VAT but is considered as an expense or cost for recovery purposes.
Stamp Tax
Stamp duty applies to a wide range of documents, including contracts, agreements, notes payable, capital contributions, letters of credit, letters of guarantee, financial statements and payrolls. Stamp duty is levied as a percentage of the value of the document at rates ranging from 0.15% to 0.75%. In the event of absence of a monetary value on the agreement, Stamp Tax would be calculated on a lump sum basis and paid in New Liras. Stamp Tax is payable by the parties who sign a document. Each and every signed copy of the agreement is separately subject to Stamp Tax.
Taxes on Wealth
Property Tax
Property taxes are paid each year on the tax values of land and buildings at rates varying from 0.1% to 0.6%. In the case of the sale of property, a 1.5% levy is paid on the sales value by both the buyer and the seller. The rate is also applied as 1.5% if the property is contributed as capital-in-kind. The rates are applied twice for property located in the Metropolitan Municipality areas.
Buildings and lands owned in Turkey are subject to real estate tax at the following rates:
* Residences 0.1%
* Other buildings 0.2%
* Land 0.1%
* Vacant land (but allocated for construction purposes) 0.3%
* Farming lands 0%
Inheritance and Gift Tax
Items acquired as gifts or through inheritance are subject to taxes between 1% and 30% of the item's appraised value. Tax paid in a foreign country on inherited property is deducted from the taxable value of the asset. Inheritance tax is payable over the period of three years and in two installments per year.
Withholding Tax
Under the Turkish tax system, certain taxes are collected through withholding by the payers in order to secure the collection of taxes. These include income tax on salaries of employees, lease payments to individual landlords, independent professional service fee payments to resident individuals, and royalty, license and service fee payments to non residents. Companies in Turkey are responsible to withhold such taxes on their payments and declare them through their withholding tax returns.
Environmental Tax
Municipalities are authorized to collect an Environmental Tax as a contribution towards the financing of certain services such as garbage collection. This tax is levied at scheduled fixed amounts that vary according to the location of the house or office. This tax is paid thru water bill of the property by the person who lives or occupies that house or office.
New Turkish Lira law
LAW ON THE CURRENCY UNIT OF THE REPUBLIC OF TURKEY
LAW NO:5083
ENACTMENT: 31.01.2004
The currency unit of the Republic of Turkey
The currency unit of the Republic of Turkey is the New Turkish Lira. The hundredth part of the New Turkish Lira is the New Kurus. One New Turkish Lira (NTL) is equivalent to a hundred New Kurus (NKr). The Council of Ministers is empowered to remove the expression of "New" used in the "New Turkish Lira" and the "New Kurus" and to establish the principles on its application. Conversion rate between the Turkish Lira and the New Turkish Lira and rounding off to the New Kurus* Article 2- When the Turkish Lira values are converted into the New Turkish Lira; one million Turkish Lira (1.000.000 TL) shall be equivalent to one New Turkish Lira (1 NTL). On the transaction results and at the payment stages of conversion transactions of the Turkish Lira values to the New Turkish Lira and the transactions to be conducted in terms of the New Turkish Lira, a half New Kurus and the values higher than a half New Kurus shall be rounded off to one New Kurus. The values lower than a half New Kurus shall not be taken into account. Amendment in references to Turkish Lira Article 3- All references made to Turkish Lira or Lira in laws, other legislation, administrative transactions, court decisions, legal transactions, negotiable instruments and other documents that produce legal effects as well as payment and exchange instruments shall be considered to have been made to New Turkish Lira at the conversion rate specified in Article 2. Reproducing and publishing of pictures and images of banknotes Article 4- Reproducing and publishing conditions related to dimension, color, material, resolution, expression to be written on the banknotes and other related conditions for the banknotes currently in circulation, or withdrawn from circulation, or to be put into circulation shall be set by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey and announced in the Official Journal. Persons who fail to comply with the conditions to be announced shall be charged with a heavy fine starting from one billion five hundred million Turkish Lira up to five billion Turkish Lira, unless it related to a more serious crime. Provisions repealed Article 5- The Law No. 3290 on the Mandatory Use of Lira in the Central Government Accounts dated 24 December 1937 has been repealed. Provisional Article 1- The Turkish Lira banknotes and coins that are currently in circulation shall be circulated along with the New Turkish Lira banknotes as well as the new coins to be issued between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2005. The regulations on the concurrent circulation and conversion of these banknotes shall be determined by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, while the regulations on the concurrent circulation and conversion of coins shall be established by the Prime Ministry, the Under secretariat of Treasury. The Minister responsible for the Under secretariat of Treasury shall be entitled to remove the doubts with respect to the execution of the Law hereby and make necessary regulations; the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Industry and Trade, the Under secretariat of Treasury, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, the Capital Market Board, the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency shall be entitled to make regulations in the matters that fall within the scope of their duties. Provisional Article 2- If any and all kinds of legal transactions and documents issued in terms of Turkish Lira producing legal effects are converted into the New Turkish Lira before 31 December 2005 (including that date) by taking the conversion rate into account as stipulated in Article 2 of the Law hereby, transactions and the documents shall be exempt from any and all kinds of tax, duty, fee and other liabilities. Provisional Article 3- Between 01 January 2005 and 31 December 2005, the prices of all goods and services shall be expressed in terms of both the Turkish Lira and the New Turkish Lira on the lists of labels and tariffs to be arranged within the framework of Article 12 of the Law on the Protection of Consumers, No. 4077. Those who do not fulfill this requirement shall be subject to the penalty stipulated in the second paragraph of Article 25 of the Law, No. 4077. Enforcement Article 6- a) Article 4, the second and third paragraphs of provisional Article 1 of this Law shall enter into force on their enactment dates, b) The other Articles shall enter into force on 1 January 2005. Execution Article 7- The provisions of this law shall be executed by the Council of Ministers. GENERAL STATEMENT OF REASONS The inflationary process experienced in Turkish economy in the 1980-2002 period was also reflected in the amount of banknotes in circulation. While the amount of banknotes in circulation (volume of currency issued) stood at TL 278.6 billion on 31 December1980, it reached TL 7 quadrillion 635 trillion 621,9 billion, increasing by 27,407 times as of 31 December 2002.
As a result of this development, while the need for banknotes in circulation had simply been met by banknotes with denominations varying from 50 Kurus to 1,000 Turkish Lira in the period between 1927 and 1980, new banknotes with larger denominations have made their way into circulation since 1981, driving away those in smaller denominations from circulation, in order to cope with the increasing need for banknotes in circulation. Thus, the composition of Turkish Lira banknotes in circulation consisted of denominations of 250.000, 500.000, 1.000.000, 5.000.000, 10.000.000 and 20.000.000 at the end of 2002.
Consequently, Turkish Lira has ended up in large denominations unprecedented in the world, creating several problems for expressing and writing the figures.
For this reason, removing six zeros from banknotes, adopting a new unit of currency based on a conversion rate, with which one million Turkish Lira equals one New Turkish Lira (1,000,000 TL = 1 NTL), and thus bringing a general simplification in expressing and writing the monetary values and records within the scope of the national economy is considered useful for practical reasons.
The Law has been prepared for this purpose.
THE RATIONALE OF ARTICLES
Article 1- The Article provides that the currency unit of the Republic of Turkey shall be the New Turkish Lira (NTL). The centesimal subdivision of the New Turkish Lira (NTL) is the New Kurus (NKr), and one New Turkish Lira corresponds to a hundred New Kurus. Therefore, it is obvious that the New Turkish Lira should replace the Turkish Lira as a unit of account in keeping the books and records. A look at the worldwide applications reveals that the countries, which have scrapped zeros from their currency unit, have generally renamed their currency unit by placing the expression of "new" before their former currency. Afterwards they have removed this expression returning to their former currency name. The same is true also in Turkey. The New Turkish Lira shall be the new currency unit by scrapping six zeros from the money still in circulation. The Council of Ministers has been authorized to remove the expression of "new" in "New Turkish Lira" and "New Kurus" with the aim of returning to the old currency unit and using the Turkish Lira as a unit of account in books and records again. Article 2- As provided by this Article, the Turkish Lira has been re-named as the New Turkish Lira; six zeros have been removed from the Turkish Lira, and one million Turkish Lira has been equaled to one New Turkish Lira (1.000.000 TL= 1 NTL). The prices of goods and services can be less than one New Kurus and such values can also be expressed with fractions of one New Kurus. By multiplying certain fixed numbers, the values involved in accrual, collection and payment transactions such as taxes, foreign exchange buying and selling may result in less than one New Kurus, or the remainder thereof can be less than one New Kurus. This Article provides that this rounding off operation should be applied not on the unit prices, but on the transaction results and at the payment stage. Payments should be recorded with two digits after comma at the most. The Article also stipulates that due to lack of coins that will allow payments less than a New Kurus on the transaction results and at the payment stages of conversion transactions of the Turkish Lira values to the New Turkish Lira and the transactions to be conducted in terms of the New Turkish Lira, a half New Kurus and the values higher than a half New Kurus shall be rounded off to one New Kurus. The values lower than a half New Kurus shall not be taken into account. Hence, some technical difficulties, such as renewal of numerical data processing electronic devices and computer software have been averted.
Article 3- Relying on the fact that the New Turkish Lira is accepted as the new currency unit, this Article hereby provides that any references to Turkish Lira or Lira in laws and other regulations, in administrative transactions and legal acts, in documents bearing legal effects, or in a broader sense, in any juridical relationship, in instruments of payment and exchange should be deemed to be made to the New Turkish Lira and considered as valid, with a conversion rate of one million Turkish Lira corresponding to one New Turkish Lira (1.000.000 TL= 1 NTL).
The introduction of the New Turkish Lira shall not alter the terms and conditions of juridical relations, and shall not give the right to any of the parties to claim an excuse to alter or cancel a juridical relation unilaterally, in fulfillment of his/her obligation.
Article 4- As there are no penal clauses to be applied in our legislation for unintentional reproducing and publishing of pictures and images of banknotes that might result in counterfeiting, with this Article it has been aimed to eliminate this legal deficiency and harmonize with the legislation of European Union.
As these arrangements might be updated by the European Central Bank, in order to minimize the amendment of this Law, it is envisaged that reproducing and publishing conditions related to dimension, color, material, resolution, expression to be written on the banknotes and other related conditions for the banknotes currently in circulation, or withdrawn from circulation, or to be put into circulation shall be set by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey and announced in the Official Journal. It is also envisaged that persons who fail to comply with the conditions to be announced shall be subject to punishment.
Article 5- As the Article provides that the New Turkish Lira shall be the currency unit of the Republic of Turkey, the Law No. 3290 on the Mandatory Use of Lira in the Central Government Accounts dated 24 December 1937 has been repealed. Provisional Article 1- With this Article, in view of experiences of other countries, it is envisaged that Turkish Lira banknotes and coins should remain in circulation along with the New Turkish Lira banknotes and coins for one year at maximum between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2005 to allow sufficient time to elapse before the replacement of the old currency unit with the new one, to avoid adverse effects on the credibility of the new currency, and to allow smooth monitoring of both currency units. It is decided that principles related to dual circulation and replacement of banknotes shall be determined by the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey whereas principles related to dual circulation and replacement of coins shall be determined by the Under secretariat of the Treasury. Moreover, in order to avoid a legal gap in the transition period of this Law, the Minister responsible for the Under secretariat of Treasury shall be entitled to remove the doubts with respect to the execution of the Law hereby and make necessary regulations; the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Industry and Trade, the Under secretariat of Treasury, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, the Capital Market Board, the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency shall be authorized to make regulations in the matters that fall within the scope of their duties. According to Article 37 of the Law on the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey No. 1211, dated 14 January 1970, the legal circulation period of Turkish lira banknotes to be withdrawn from circulation shall be ten years beginning from 1 January 2006. Provisional Article 2- With this Article, it is decided that parties will be exempt from taxes, fees, charges and other liabilities arising from all kinds of legal acts, negotiable instruments and documents issued in terms of Turkish Lira producing legal effects into the New Turkish Lira before 31 December 2005 (including that date) by taking the conversion rate into account as stipulated in Article 2 of the Law hereby. Provisional Article 3- With this article, it is required that the prices of all goods and services shall be expressed in terms of both Turkish Lira and New Turkish Lira starting from 01 January 2005, when the New Turkish Lira will be put into circulation, until 31 December 2005, which is the deadline of dual circulation of banknotes and coins of Turkish Lira and New Turkish Lira, on the lists of labels and tariffs to be arranged within the framework of Article 12 of the Law on the Protection of Consumers, dated 23 February 1995 and No. 4077. It is decided that those who do not fulfill this requirement should be subject to the penalty stipulated in the second paragraph of Article 25 of the same Law.
Article 6- With this article, it is envisaged that Article 4, the second and third paragraphs of provisional Article 1 of this Law should enter into force on the enactment date, while the other Articles should enter into force on 1 January 2005, in order to facilitate the preparatory and regulatory works to be done by the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Industry and Trade, the Under secretariat of Treasury, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey, the Capital Market Board and the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency for transition to the New Turkish Lira, as well as to avoid any problem in keeping the books and records. Article 7- This articles refers to the execution of this Law.
New Turkish Lira
As of 1st of January 2005, six zeroes have been deleted from our currency and YTL (New Turkish Lira) became the new currency unit of Turkey, so we started using the New Turkish Lira and the New Kurus (cent). The Law for YTL #5083 was published in the Official Gazette dated 31 January 2004.
The composition of denominations for YTL banknotes are; 1,5,10,20,50,100, and denominations for coins are 1,5,10,25,50 New Cent and 1 YTL. The sub-unit of YTL is YKr (Yeni Kurus) and 1 YTL = 100 YKr.
While determining the name of the new currency unit, the expression of "Lira", which is t
he unique currency unit traditionally used throughout the Republican period after the War of Independence and identified with Turkey in international markets, has been preserved. Many countries that dropped zeros from their currency units opted for adding the adjective "new" before the name of their currency units in order to facilitate the transition and omitted the word "new" after a while. 49 countries so far removed zeros from their currency; Brazil deleted 18 zeros in 6 operations, Argentina 13 zeros in 4 operations, Israel 9 zeros in 4 operations, Poland 4 zeros in 1 operation, Greece 3 zeros in 1 operation. Etc.
The facts that urged transition to a new currency unit stand as proof of the importance of the issue.
The high inflationary process, which started in 1970s, obliged expression of economic values in terms of billions, trillions and even quadrillions. In this process, the cash demand of economy was met by new banknotes in larger denominations that were put into circulation almost every two years since 1981. As a result of this process, Turkey was currently the only country where the highest denominated banknotes (20million TL banknote) were circulated. This fact was not only undermine the reputation of our currency but also adversely affected the currency's functions as a medium of exchange and store of value. Also, figures with many zeros lead to problems in accounting and statistical records, IT, payment systems and transactions at the cashiers office.
Removing six zeros from the currency coupled with the ongoing efforts to driving inflation down to single digit numbers is a very important step from the point of its effects on the reputation of the currency. Meanwhile, deleting zeros from the currency will eliminate the technical as well as operational problems arising form the use of figures with multiple zeros. Therefore monetary expressions will be simplified and taking records and making transactions will become easier.
In sum, changeover to New Turkish Lira was necessary both for the prospective positive effects on the currency's reputation and for technical reasons. The New Turkish Lira is also symbol and
the expression "TL" is resumed as of 1st of January 2009. Now there is also a new paper bill of 200 TL.
Turkish Economy
Turkey is a dynamic emerging market equipped with a network of developed infrastructure and a globally competitive work force. Its unique position at the crossroads of the world trade routes and its proximity to the developing energy producing regions in the Caspian and Central Asia are factors that further raise its potential for the coming years.
Turkey's civilian labor force is 24.3 million people as of end of 2004. Agricultural sector still employs around 1/3 of the labor force although share of agriculture in GNP is just above 10%. Nearly half of the employed are in the services sector and the ratio employed in the industrial sector is 18%.The unemployment rate of the country is around 9.7%.
Current account deficit almost doubled in 2004 and reached USD 15.6 billion USD corresponding to a historical high of 5.2% of GNP. In 2004, foreign trade deficit was 23.9 billion USD widening 84% compared to the previous year. Thus, the main factor in the rise of the current account deficit was the increase in imports and deteriorating trade balance. Growing economy activity fuelled imports through capital and intermediate goods imports. Exports were also strong however they increased at a lower pace compared to imports. Tourism revenues helped compensating by generating a revenue over 15 billion USD. In the capital and financial accounts, 16.8 billion USD inflow was recorded. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) remained still at an insignificant level of 2.6 billion USD against the 1.7 billion USD in 2003. Current account deficit was financed mainly by portfolio investments amounting to 8.1 billion USD.
Main economic indicators in Turkey have been recovering and stability has been achieved in many areas especially in the last two years. Structural reforms within the framework of the IMF program, EU Harmonization Laws and sector regulations along with improvements in the investment environment have provided a more favorable business environment. The new Turkish Lira (6 zeros removed) has been launched as of the beginning of 2005. This is expected to further contribute to the monetary stability.
As a consequence of the customs union with the EU since 1995 and the ongoing EU pre-accession process and IMF (International Monetary Fund) Stand-by Agreement, the economic legislative environment is in progressive alignment with the main policies and standards of the EU.
The resolute implementation of the economic program not only heals the short-term imbalances in the economy, but also rapidly improves the business environment via constructing a sound premise for sustainable growth. Turkish economy has recorded a very high growth rate in 2004 with GNP increasing 9.9% and GDP 8.9%. Per capita GNP has increased from 3,383 USD in 2003 to 4,172 USD in 2004 while PPP adjusted GNP has reached to 7,736 USD.
GNP: 460 billion Euro (PPP) (+ by far the highest volume of unregistered economy among the OECD countries)
GNP growth rate: +6.3 in 2000, -9.5 in 2001, +7.9% in 2002, +5.9% in 2003, +9.9 in 2004
Major trade partners: EU: 52% (Turkey is the EU's 7th partner) USA: 8% Russia: 9%
Turkey's exports to the EU25 - 2003: 23.3 billion Euro
Turkey's imports from the EU25 - 2003: 28.3 billion Euro
Trade deficit with the EU25 - 2003: 5 billion Euro
6311 foreign investment companies operate in Turkey
Approximately one third of Turkey's banks are foreign
Turkish direct investments in 50 countries amount to 50 billion Euro
Industrial production: 25% of the GNP (services: 60%; agriculture: 11.5%)
Industrial goods: 89% of the exports clothing, automotive, textile, electronics, home appliances, steel, glass, etc.
Manufacturing industry gained a 79.3% increase in 2004 particularly in office and computing machinery
Motor vehicles grow at a rate of 53.3% in 2004
Turkey, in the World, is the:
16th largest economy
6th cement producer
2nd flat glass producer
6th clothing exporter
Turkey, in the Europe, is the:
1st artificial fertilizer producer
7th iron and steel producer
largest emerging market
Bilateral Free Trade Agreements
Under the Customs Union (CU), Turkey is applying the same common commercial policy measures with the European Union. Together with the Common Customs Tariff, the preferential trade regime constitutes the most important part of the trade policy applied towards third countries. Article 16 of the Turkey � EU Association Council Decision No. 1/95 dated 6 March 1995 and its Annex 10 set the rules and modalities of the alignment, where it is provided that Turkey will take the necessary measures and negotiate agreements on a mutually advantageous basis with the countries concerned.
Taking into account its responsibilities stemming from the CU and its commercial priorities, Turkey concluded 19 preferential trade agreements until today. Currently, only 9 of these preferential agreements are in force: EFTA, Israel, Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina Palestine and Tunisia.
The Free Trade Agreement between Turkey and the EFTA States, which entered into force in April 1992, was the first step on the way to the adoption of the preferential regimes of the EU even before the entry into force of the CU. During the period between 1996 � 2000, priority was given to the countries in Europe that were not then the members of the EU. FTAs were signed with Lithuania, Hungary, Estonia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Slovenia and Latvia. When they became member of the EU in May 2004, the FTAs with these countries ceased to apply. The FTAs signed with Israel, Romania and Bulgaria entered into force in May 1997, February 1998 and January 1999 respectively.
Balkans was another priority area for Turkey. FTA with Macedonia entered into force in September 2000. It was followed by the entry into force of FTAs with Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina in July 2003. With the impetus of the Barcelona Process, the Mediterranean Basin gained importance in Turkey's priority list. In 2004 FTAs was signed with Tunisia and Palestine. The Association Agreements establishing Free Trade Areas with Tunisia and Syria were concluded in the same year. Preferential Agreements signed with Palestine and Tunisia are in force as of 1 June 2005 and 1 July 2005 respectively.
Turkey continues to negotiate FTAs with Jordan, Egypt, Lebanon, Faeroe Islands, Albania, South Africa and Mexico.
Free Trade Zones
Free Zones are defined as special sites within the country but deemed to be outside of the customs territory and they are the regions where the valid regulations related to foreign trade and other financial and economic areas are not applicable, are partly applicable or new regulations are tested in. Free Zones are also the regions where more convenient business climate is offered in order to increase trade volume and export for some industrial and commercial activities as compared to the other parts of country.
In general all kind of activities can be performed in Turkish Free Zones such as manufacturing, storing, packing, general trading, banking and insurance. Investors are free to construct their own premises, while zones have also available office spaces, workshops, or warehouses on rental basis with attractive terms. All field of activities open to Turkish private sector are also open to joint-venture of foreign companies.
Turkish Free Zones are tax free zones. Income generated through activities in the Zones are exempted from all kinds of taxes including income, corporate and value-added tax. Free Zones earnings and revenues can be transferred to any country, including Turkey, freely without any prior permission and are not subject to any kind of taxes, duties and fees. Currencies used in the zone are convertible foreign currencies accepted by the Central Bank of Turkey.
The validity period of an operation license is maximum 10 years for tenant users, and 20 years for users who wish to make their own offices in the zone; If the operating license is for production, these terms are 15 and 30 years for tenant users and investors, respectively. The requested operation license period can be prolonged to 99 years according to the type of investment. There is no limitation on the proportion of foreign capital participation in investment within the Free Zones.
In contrary to most Free Zones of the world, sales into the domestic market are allowed in Turkish Free Zones (sales to the domestic market is subject to a fee of 0.5 % of the transaction value). Infrastructure of the Turkish Free Zones is comparable with international standards. Red tape and bureaucracy have been minimized during application and operation phases by authorizing only one agency in charge of these procedures. There is no procedural restrictions regarding price, standards or quality of goods in the Turkish Free Zones.
The geographical location of Turkey provides significant advantages to the Turkish Free Zones. They are usually adjacent to the major Turkish Ports on the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas. In addition, they were established within easy access from international airports and highways. These are:
* Adana-Yumurtalik Free Zone (Ceyhan-Adana) 1999
* Aegean Free Zone (Gaziemir-Izmir) 1990
* Antalya Free Zone (New Port-Antalya) 1987
* Bursa Free Zone (Gemlik-Bursa) 2001
* Denizli Free Zone (Cardak-Denizli) 2001
* Eastern Anatolian Free Zone (Fair area-Erzurum) 1995
* European Free Zone (Corlu-Tekirdag) 1999
* Gaziantep Free Zone (Baspinar-Gaziantep) 1999
* Istanbul Ataturk Airport Free Zone (Yesilkoy-Istanbul) 1990
* Istanbul Leather and Industry Free Zone (Tuzla-Istanbul) 1995
* Istanbul Stock Exchange Free Zone (Emirgan-Istanbul) 1997
* Istanbul Thrace Free Zone (Catalca-Istanbul) 1998
* Izmir Menemen Free Zone (Menemen-Izmir) 1998
* Kayseri Free Zone (Kayseri) 1998
* Kocaeli Free Zone (Golcuk-Kocaeli) 2001
* Mardin Free Zone (Mardin) 1995
* Mersin Free Zone (Mersin) 1987
* Rize Free Zone (Rize) 1998
* Samsun Free Zone (Port-Samsun) 1998
* Trabzon Free Zone (Port-Trabzon) 1992
* Tubitak Marmara Research Center Technology Free Zone (Gebze-Kocaeli) 2002
Turkey's civilian labor force is 24.3 million people as of end of 2004. Agricultural sector still employs around 1/3 of the labor force although share of agriculture in GNP is just above 10%. Nearly half of the employed are in the services sector and the ratio employed in the industrial sector is 18%.The unemployment rate of the country is around 9.7%.
Current account deficit almost doubled in 2004 and reached USD 15.6 billion USD corresponding to a historical high of 5.2% of GNP. In 2004, foreign trade deficit was 23.9 billion USD widening 84% compared to the previous year. Thus, the main factor in the rise of the current account deficit was the increase in imports and deteriorating trade balance. Growing economy activity fuelled imports through capital and intermediate goods imports. Exports were also strong however they increased at a lower pace compared to imports. Tourism revenues helped compensating by generating a revenue over 15 billion USD. In the capital and financial accounts, 16.8 billion USD inflow was recorded. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) remained still at an insignificant level of 2.6 billion USD against the 1.7 billion USD in 2003. Current account deficit was financed mainly by portfolio investments amounting to 8.1 billion USD.
Main economic indicators in Turkey have been recovering and stability has been achieved in many areas especially in the last two years. Structural reforms within the framework of the IMF program, EU Harmonization Laws and sector regulations along with improvements in the investment environment have provided a more favorable business environment. The new Turkish Lira (6 zeros removed) has been launched as of the beginning of 2005. This is expected to further contribute to the monetary stability.
As a consequence of the customs union with the EU since 1995 and the ongoing EU pre-accession process and IMF (International Monetary Fund) Stand-by Agreement, the economic legislative environment is in progressive alignment with the main policies and standards of the EU.
The resolute implementation of the economic program not only heals the short-term imbalances in the economy, but also rapidly improves the business environment via constructing a sound premise for sustainable growth. Turkish economy has recorded a very high growth rate in 2004 with GNP increasing 9.9% and GDP 8.9%. Per capita GNP has increased from 3,383 USD in 2003 to 4,172 USD in 2004 while PPP adjusted GNP has reached to 7,736 USD.
GNP: 460 billion Euro (PPP) (+ by far the highest volume of unregistered economy among the OECD countries)
GNP growth rate: +6.3 in 2000, -9.5 in 2001, +7.9% in 2002, +5.9% in 2003, +9.9 in 2004
Major trade partners: EU: 52% (Turkey is the EU's 7th partner) USA: 8% Russia: 9%
Turkey's exports to the EU25 - 2003: 23.3 billion Euro
Turkey's imports from the EU25 - 2003: 28.3 billion Euro
Trade deficit with the EU25 - 2003: 5 billion Euro
6311 foreign investment companies operate in Turkey
Approximately one third of Turkey's banks are foreign
Turkish direct investments in 50 countries amount to 50 billion Euro
Industrial production: 25% of the GNP (services: 60%; agriculture: 11.5%)
Industrial goods: 89% of the exports clothing, automotive, textile, electronics, home appliances, steel, glass, etc.
Manufacturing industry gained a 79.3% increase in 2004 particularly in office and computing machinery
Motor vehicles grow at a rate of 53.3% in 2004
Turkey, in the World, is the:
16th largest economy
6th cement producer
2nd flat glass producer
6th clothing exporter
Turkey, in the Europe, is the:
1st artificial fertilizer producer
7th iron and steel producer
largest emerging market
Bilateral Free Trade Agreements
Under the Customs Union (CU), Turkey is applying the same common commercial policy measures with the European Union. Together with the Common Customs Tariff, the preferential trade regime constitutes the most important part of the trade policy applied towards third countries. Article 16 of the Turkey � EU Association Council Decision No. 1/95 dated 6 March 1995 and its Annex 10 set the rules and modalities of the alignment, where it is provided that Turkey will take the necessary measures and negotiate agreements on a mutually advantageous basis with the countries concerned.
Taking into account its responsibilities stemming from the CU and its commercial priorities, Turkey concluded 19 preferential trade agreements until today. Currently, only 9 of these preferential agreements are in force: EFTA, Israel, Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina Palestine and Tunisia.
The Free Trade Agreement between Turkey and the EFTA States, which entered into force in April 1992, was the first step on the way to the adoption of the preferential regimes of the EU even before the entry into force of the CU. During the period between 1996 � 2000, priority was given to the countries in Europe that were not then the members of the EU. FTAs were signed with Lithuania, Hungary, Estonia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Slovenia and Latvia. When they became member of the EU in May 2004, the FTAs with these countries ceased to apply. The FTAs signed with Israel, Romania and Bulgaria entered into force in May 1997, February 1998 and January 1999 respectively.
Balkans was another priority area for Turkey. FTA with Macedonia entered into force in September 2000. It was followed by the entry into force of FTAs with Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina in July 2003. With the impetus of the Barcelona Process, the Mediterranean Basin gained importance in Turkey's priority list. In 2004 FTAs was signed with Tunisia and Palestine. The Association Agreements establishing Free Trade Areas with Tunisia and Syria were concluded in the same year. Preferential Agreements signed with Palestine and Tunisia are in force as of 1 June 2005 and 1 July 2005 respectively.
Turkey continues to negotiate FTAs with Jordan, Egypt, Lebanon, Faeroe Islands, Albania, South Africa and Mexico.
Free Trade Zones
Free Zones are defined as special sites within the country but deemed to be outside of the customs territory and they are the regions where the valid regulations related to foreign trade and other financial and economic areas are not applicable, are partly applicable or new regulations are tested in. Free Zones are also the regions where more convenient business climate is offered in order to increase trade volume and export for some industrial and commercial activities as compared to the other parts of country.
In general all kind of activities can be performed in Turkish Free Zones such as manufacturing, storing, packing, general trading, banking and insurance. Investors are free to construct their own premises, while zones have also available office spaces, workshops, or warehouses on rental basis with attractive terms. All field of activities open to Turkish private sector are also open to joint-venture of foreign companies.
Turkish Free Zones are tax free zones. Income generated through activities in the Zones are exempted from all kinds of taxes including income, corporate and value-added tax. Free Zones earnings and revenues can be transferred to any country, including Turkey, freely without any prior permission and are not subject to any kind of taxes, duties and fees. Currencies used in the zone are convertible foreign currencies accepted by the Central Bank of Turkey.
The validity period of an operation license is maximum 10 years for tenant users, and 20 years for users who wish to make their own offices in the zone; If the operating license is for production, these terms are 15 and 30 years for tenant users and investors, respectively. The requested operation license period can be prolonged to 99 years according to the type of investment. There is no limitation on the proportion of foreign capital participation in investment within the Free Zones.
In contrary to most Free Zones of the world, sales into the domestic market are allowed in Turkish Free Zones (sales to the domestic market is subject to a fee of 0.5 % of the transaction value). Infrastructure of the Turkish Free Zones is comparable with international standards. Red tape and bureaucracy have been minimized during application and operation phases by authorizing only one agency in charge of these procedures. There is no procedural restrictions regarding price, standards or quality of goods in the Turkish Free Zones.
The geographical location of Turkey provides significant advantages to the Turkish Free Zones. They are usually adjacent to the major Turkish Ports on the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas. In addition, they were established within easy access from international airports and highways. These are:
* Adana-Yumurtalik Free Zone (Ceyhan-Adana) 1999
* Aegean Free Zone (Gaziemir-Izmir) 1990
* Antalya Free Zone (New Port-Antalya) 1987
* Bursa Free Zone (Gemlik-Bursa) 2001
* Denizli Free Zone (Cardak-Denizli) 2001
* Eastern Anatolian Free Zone (Fair area-Erzurum) 1995
* European Free Zone (Corlu-Tekirdag) 1999
* Gaziantep Free Zone (Baspinar-Gaziantep) 1999
* Istanbul Ataturk Airport Free Zone (Yesilkoy-Istanbul) 1990
* Istanbul Leather and Industry Free Zone (Tuzla-Istanbul) 1995
* Istanbul Stock Exchange Free Zone (Emirgan-Istanbul) 1997
* Istanbul Thrace Free Zone (Catalca-Istanbul) 1998
* Izmir Menemen Free Zone (Menemen-Izmir) 1998
* Kayseri Free Zone (Kayseri) 1998
* Kocaeli Free Zone (Golcuk-Kocaeli) 2001
* Mardin Free Zone (Mardin) 1995
* Mersin Free Zone (Mersin) 1987
* Rize Free Zone (Rize) 1998
* Samsun Free Zone (Port-Samsun) 1998
* Trabzon Free Zone (Port-Trabzon) 1992
* Tubitak Marmara Research Center Technology Free Zone (Gebze-Kocaeli) 2002
Banks in Turkey
The banking sector forms a great part of the Turkish financial system in its dynamic economy. Most of the transactions and activities of money and capital markets are carried out by banks. Most State banks were established to finance a particular industry such as agriculture for example (Ziraat Bank), but private banks generally have close connections to large industrial groups and holdings.
First banking activities started in early 1800s with the so-called money-changers and the Galata bankers. During this period, all quasi-banking activities were carried out by money-changers, and The Galata bankers consisted mostly of the ethnic-minorities in Istanbul. With the deterioration of the Ottoman Empires' financial situation after the Crimean war, the Empire needed external financial support. It was during this period when representatives of several foreign banks came to Istanbul with the purpose of extending credits to the Empire at high interest rates. The Ottoman Bank (Osmanli Bankasi) was established in 1856 with its head office in London and served as the Central Bank until the 1930s.
The Central Bank, founded in the early 1930s, has the usual central bank responsibilities, such as issuing banknotes, protecting the currency, and regulating the banking system and credit. The Central Bank also finances the government's budget deficits and makes loans to public and private banks. But after 1983 the Central Bank began to reduce lending and stepped up its supervisory functions.
Before 1980 there were only 4 foreign banks in Turkey, but their number grew rapidly during the 1980s as the Turgut Ozal government liberalized conditions and today there are almost 50 of them. During these years a series of reforms were adopted to promote financial market development; interest and foreign exchange rates were liberalized, new entrants to the banking system were permitted and foreign banks were encouraged to operate in Turkey.
All banks in Turkey are subject to the Banks Act and to the provisions of other laws regarding to banks. The new Law brought the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA, or Turkish BDDK) into life to safeguard the rights and benefits of depositors. The Banks Association of Turkey (BAT, or Turkish TBB) is the representative body of the banking sector in Turkey established for protecting and promoting the professional interests of its members.
As of January 2008, there are a total of 46 banks operating with 7480 branches in Turkey and 50 branches abroad.
First banking activities started in early 1800s with the so-called money-changers and the Galata bankers. During this period, all quasi-banking activities were carried out by money-changers, and The Galata bankers consisted mostly of the ethnic-minorities in Istanbul. With the deterioration of the Ottoman Empires' financial situation after the Crimean war, the Empire needed external financial support. It was during this period when representatives of several foreign banks came to Istanbul with the purpose of extending credits to the Empire at high interest rates. The Ottoman Bank (Osmanli Bankasi) was established in 1856 with its head office in London and served as the Central Bank until the 1930s.
The Central Bank, founded in the early 1930s, has the usual central bank responsibilities, such as issuing banknotes, protecting the currency, and regulating the banking system and credit. The Central Bank also finances the government's budget deficits and makes loans to public and private banks. But after 1983 the Central Bank began to reduce lending and stepped up its supervisory functions.
Before 1980 there were only 4 foreign banks in Turkey, but their number grew rapidly during the 1980s as the Turgut Ozal government liberalized conditions and today there are almost 50 of them. During these years a series of reforms were adopted to promote financial market development; interest and foreign exchange rates were liberalized, new entrants to the banking system were permitted and foreign banks were encouraged to operate in Turkey.
All banks in Turkey are subject to the Banks Act and to the provisions of other laws regarding to banks. The new Law brought the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA, or Turkish BDDK) into life to safeguard the rights and benefits of depositors. The Banks Association of Turkey (BAT, or Turkish TBB) is the representative body of the banking sector in Turkey established for protecting and promoting the professional interests of its members.
As of January 2008, there are a total of 46 banks operating with 7480 branches in Turkey and 50 branches abroad.
Education System in Turkey
Schools
* Pre-school
* Elementary
* High school
* University
* Foreign students
* University links
According to the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, every citizen has the right to education which is free of charge for the compulsory primary education. Except in specially licensed and foreign institutions, Turkish must be taught as the mother tongue.
The Ministry of National Education (MEB) runs educational administration of the country and is responsible for drawing up curricula, coordinating the work of official, private and voluntary organizations, designing and building schools, developing educational materials and so on. The Supreme Council of National Education discusses and decides on curricula and regulations prepared by the Ministry. In the provinces, educational affairs are organized by the Directorates of National Education appointed by the Minister, but working under the direction of the provincial governor.
The central government is responsible for all educational expenses of the public, about 10% of the general budget is allocated for national education.
The academic calendar generally begins in late September and extends through to early June, with some variations between urban and rural areas. The school day usually have a morning and an afternoon session, but in overcrowded schools there is a split session. Schools are in session for five days a week (Monday to Friday) in a total of 35-40 hours. There is a two week winter break in February. Universities usually organize the academic year into two semesters, usually between October - January and between February/March - June/July.
The Turkish National Educational System is composed of two main sections: Formal Education and Non-formal Education.
Formal Education
Formal education is the regular education of individuals in a certain age group and given in schools. This includes Pre-Primary education, Primary education, Secondary education and Higher education institutions.
Pre-Primary education
Pre-Primary education is an optional education for children between 3-6 years of age who are under the age of compulsory primary education. The purpose of this education is to ensure physical, mental and sensory development of children and the acquisition of good habits, to prepare children for primary education, to create a common atmosphere of growth for those living in inconvenient circumstances and to ensure that Turkish is spoken correct and well. Pre-school education is given in kindergartens, daycare homes, nursery classes in primary schools, and in private nurseries, all under the supervision of the Ministry. They are usually concentrated in larger towns and cities.
Primary Education
With a new Law in 1997, eight years of Primary school is compulsory today (former system was five years of compulsory primary school, followed by three years of middle or junior high school education). Primary education is compulsory for all boys and girls at the age of 6, and is given free of charge in public schools. These schools provide eight years of uninterrupted education. There are also private (and paid) schools under State control. In most of the primary schools, foreign language lessons start from 4th class. Most elementary school students dress similarly in a type of uniform to avoid any social class differences between rich and poor students. If the children fails to pass the class, he/she has to repeat the same class next year. At the end of 8 years, successful students get their Diploma and can go for the Secondary education.
The purpose of primary education is to ensure that every child acquires the basic knowledge, skills, behaviors, and habits to become a good citizen, is raised in line with the national moral concepts and is prepared for life and for the next education level parallel to his/her interests and skills.
Secondary Education
Secondary education covers general, vocational and technical high schools (Lycees, Lise in Turkish) that provide four years of education (used to be 3 years until 2005).
* General high schools prepare students for higher learning institutions. Some of the secondary schools and the private secondary schools have foreign language preparatory classes. This kind of private lycees have double language education (such as Italian Highschool, German Highschool, Austrian Highschool, French Highschool, and so on).
* Vocational and technical high schools provide specialized instruction with the aim of training qualified personnel.
o Technical lycees include special formations such as electricity, electronics, chemistry, machinery, motors, building, etc.
o Vocational lycees can be Industrial Vocational Lycees; Girls' Vocational Lycees (home economics etc.), Public Health Vocational Lycees, Commercial Vocational Lycees, Agricultural Vocational Lycees, Meteorology Vocational Lycees, Animal Husbandry Vocational Lycees, Land Registration and Cadastre Vocational Lycees, etc.
The purpose of secondary education is to give students a minimum common culture, to identify individual and social problems, to search for solutions, to raise awareness in order to contribute to the socio-economic and cultural development of the country and to prepare the students for higher education, for profession, for life and for business in line with their interests and skills.
In addition to normal high schools, there are also evening high schools usually operating in the same school building. These are designed to allow those who take up employment after primary (or middle school) to continue their formal education.
Most of the high schools are owned by the State and provide free educational opportunities. In order to provide equal opportunities for the children with limited finances, there are State high schools with boarding facilities. These schools are free of charge and the students are placed according to the results of an examination.
Graduates of the high schools can attend universities if they can pass admission exams.
Higher Education
Turkish universities are Republican institutions, following Atatürk's principles. Universities, faculties, institutes, higher education schools, conservatories, vocational higher education schools, police and military academies and colleges, and application-research centers are considered as Higher Education institutions.
Universities, faculties and institutes of four-year higher education schools are founded by Law, while the two-year vocational schools, departments and divisions are established by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK). Universities are under the supervision of this Council and their programmes must be regularly accredited. The Council of Higher Education is a fully autonomous national board of trustees without any political or government affiliation. Universities have their rectors, deans, senate, and administrative boards, as well as student councils. In the universities, the instruction is generally in Turkish. Some universities use English, French and German as the language of instruction with one preparatory year if necessary.
After the highschool, the graduates enter an one-stage examination (ÖSS - Student Selection Examination) in order to be admitted to Higher Education institutions. This nation-wide centralized examination is administrated by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) every year, which determines candidates for the enrollment of each university and faculty after evaluating the grades of related subjects, their high school average results and their preferences according to the student capacity of each faculty. Those with good grades are qualified for the four-year undergraduate programmes and at the end they can get a Bachelor's Degree (BA), those who have grades at the limit can be admitted to the two-year higher education programmes and at the end they can get an Associate's Degree (AA). Dentistry and Veterinary Medicine courses last for five years and Medicine for six years.
After a four-year faculty, one can go further for his/her Master's Degree which lasts for two years with thesis and non-thesis options. Access to doctoral programs requires a master's degree and have a duration of minimum four years with a doctoral thesis at the end. The graduates of Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dentistry can directly apply to PhD/Doctorate programmes.
The purpose of higher education is to raise the students in line with their interests and skills, in conformance to the science policy of the country and in consideration of qualified manpower needs of society at several levels, to do researches in scientific areas, to arrange for all kinds of publications that show the research and examination results and facilitate advancement of science and technology, to finalize the researches and examinations demanded by the government and to make comments, to make written or oral public announcements explaining the scientific data that shall increase the general level of Turkish society and enlighten the public, and to give non-formal education.
According to the Law, higher education institutions are responsible for the training of their own academic staff. Meanwhile, Primary and Secondary school teachers are trained in universities for 4 years and they get a BA degree at the end.
The major source of income of state universities is the funds allocated through the annual State budget, this is equivalent of about 60% of the total university income. In addition to this, a university can generate its own income from the services provided by that university, such as patient care in university hospitals. Student contributions to state universities form only 4% of the total university budget. Meanwhile, the student fees in private foundation (Vakif) universities are much higher.
At present, enrolment in the private universities accounts for only 5% of the total. Clearly, state universities are by far carrying the major portion of the load of higher education in Turkey.
Non-Formal Education
Non-formal education in Turkey is offered by a network of training centers who are supervised by the Ministry of National Education (MEB). Non-formal education services aim to teach reading-writing, help to continue education of students for finish their incomplete education, teach balanced nutrition and a healthy life style, teach people from various professions the knowledge and skills they need to improve themselves, and so on.
There is also Distance Higher Education which is offered at the Open Education Faculty of Anadolu University. This program lasts for 2 or 4 years.
Foreign Students Admission
Foreign students would like to enroll in the post-graduate programs of the Turkish institutions of higher education can apply directly to universities and must have completed their secondary education in a high school in which the education is equivalent to that of a Turkish lycee; they need to have it confirmed from a Turkish Embassy in their country and apply for a student visa. The applications of foreign students will be considered by the universities within their limit of the allocated places for foreigners. The students must also take the Foreign Student Entrance Examination (YÖS) which consists of two tests; a "basic learning skills test" where they must score at least 40, and a "Turkish language proficiency test" to see their Turkish language level, if any. Language courses are organized for those who do not speak Turkish, and in some Turkish universities courses are taught in English, French or German.
Foreign students must take the Graduate Education Entrance Examination or an international examination (GRE, GMAT, SAT, etc.) required by each university, the equivalency of which is recognized by the concerning university senate. The evaluation of the results of these examinations is carried out by the concerning universities.
* Pre-school
* Elementary
* High school
* University
* Foreign students
* University links
According to the Constitution of the Republic of Turkey, every citizen has the right to education which is free of charge for the compulsory primary education. Except in specially licensed and foreign institutions, Turkish must be taught as the mother tongue.
The Ministry of National Education (MEB) runs educational administration of the country and is responsible for drawing up curricula, coordinating the work of official, private and voluntary organizations, designing and building schools, developing educational materials and so on. The Supreme Council of National Education discusses and decides on curricula and regulations prepared by the Ministry. In the provinces, educational affairs are organized by the Directorates of National Education appointed by the Minister, but working under the direction of the provincial governor.
The central government is responsible for all educational expenses of the public, about 10% of the general budget is allocated for national education.
The academic calendar generally begins in late September and extends through to early June, with some variations between urban and rural areas. The school day usually have a morning and an afternoon session, but in overcrowded schools there is a split session. Schools are in session for five days a week (Monday to Friday) in a total of 35-40 hours. There is a two week winter break in February. Universities usually organize the academic year into two semesters, usually between October - January and between February/March - June/July.
The Turkish National Educational System is composed of two main sections: Formal Education and Non-formal Education.
Formal Education
Formal education is the regular education of individuals in a certain age group and given in schools. This includes Pre-Primary education, Primary education, Secondary education and Higher education institutions.
Pre-Primary education
Pre-Primary education is an optional education for children between 3-6 years of age who are under the age of compulsory primary education. The purpose of this education is to ensure physical, mental and sensory development of children and the acquisition of good habits, to prepare children for primary education, to create a common atmosphere of growth for those living in inconvenient circumstances and to ensure that Turkish is spoken correct and well. Pre-school education is given in kindergartens, daycare homes, nursery classes in primary schools, and in private nurseries, all under the supervision of the Ministry. They are usually concentrated in larger towns and cities.
Primary Education
With a new Law in 1997, eight years of Primary school is compulsory today (former system was five years of compulsory primary school, followed by three years of middle or junior high school education). Primary education is compulsory for all boys and girls at the age of 6, and is given free of charge in public schools. These schools provide eight years of uninterrupted education. There are also private (and paid) schools under State control. In most of the primary schools, foreign language lessons start from 4th class. Most elementary school students dress similarly in a type of uniform to avoid any social class differences between rich and poor students. If the children fails to pass the class, he/she has to repeat the same class next year. At the end of 8 years, successful students get their Diploma and can go for the Secondary education.
The purpose of primary education is to ensure that every child acquires the basic knowledge, skills, behaviors, and habits to become a good citizen, is raised in line with the national moral concepts and is prepared for life and for the next education level parallel to his/her interests and skills.
Secondary Education
Secondary education covers general, vocational and technical high schools (Lycees, Lise in Turkish) that provide four years of education (used to be 3 years until 2005).
* General high schools prepare students for higher learning institutions. Some of the secondary schools and the private secondary schools have foreign language preparatory classes. This kind of private lycees have double language education (such as Italian Highschool, German Highschool, Austrian Highschool, French Highschool, and so on).
* Vocational and technical high schools provide specialized instruction with the aim of training qualified personnel.
o Technical lycees include special formations such as electricity, electronics, chemistry, machinery, motors, building, etc.
o Vocational lycees can be Industrial Vocational Lycees; Girls' Vocational Lycees (home economics etc.), Public Health Vocational Lycees, Commercial Vocational Lycees, Agricultural Vocational Lycees, Meteorology Vocational Lycees, Animal Husbandry Vocational Lycees, Land Registration and Cadastre Vocational Lycees, etc.
The purpose of secondary education is to give students a minimum common culture, to identify individual and social problems, to search for solutions, to raise awareness in order to contribute to the socio-economic and cultural development of the country and to prepare the students for higher education, for profession, for life and for business in line with their interests and skills.
In addition to normal high schools, there are also evening high schools usually operating in the same school building. These are designed to allow those who take up employment after primary (or middle school) to continue their formal education.
Most of the high schools are owned by the State and provide free educational opportunities. In order to provide equal opportunities for the children with limited finances, there are State high schools with boarding facilities. These schools are free of charge and the students are placed according to the results of an examination.
Graduates of the high schools can attend universities if they can pass admission exams.
Higher Education
Turkish universities are Republican institutions, following Atatürk's principles. Universities, faculties, institutes, higher education schools, conservatories, vocational higher education schools, police and military academies and colleges, and application-research centers are considered as Higher Education institutions.
Universities, faculties and institutes of four-year higher education schools are founded by Law, while the two-year vocational schools, departments and divisions are established by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK). Universities are under the supervision of this Council and their programmes must be regularly accredited. The Council of Higher Education is a fully autonomous national board of trustees without any political or government affiliation. Universities have their rectors, deans, senate, and administrative boards, as well as student councils. In the universities, the instruction is generally in Turkish. Some universities use English, French and German as the language of instruction with one preparatory year if necessary.
After the highschool, the graduates enter an one-stage examination (ÖSS - Student Selection Examination) in order to be admitted to Higher Education institutions. This nation-wide centralized examination is administrated by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) every year, which determines candidates for the enrollment of each university and faculty after evaluating the grades of related subjects, their high school average results and their preferences according to the student capacity of each faculty. Those with good grades are qualified for the four-year undergraduate programmes and at the end they can get a Bachelor's Degree (BA), those who have grades at the limit can be admitted to the two-year higher education programmes and at the end they can get an Associate's Degree (AA). Dentistry and Veterinary Medicine courses last for five years and Medicine for six years.
After a four-year faculty, one can go further for his/her Master's Degree which lasts for two years with thesis and non-thesis options. Access to doctoral programs requires a master's degree and have a duration of minimum four years with a doctoral thesis at the end. The graduates of Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dentistry can directly apply to PhD/Doctorate programmes.
The purpose of higher education is to raise the students in line with their interests and skills, in conformance to the science policy of the country and in consideration of qualified manpower needs of society at several levels, to do researches in scientific areas, to arrange for all kinds of publications that show the research and examination results and facilitate advancement of science and technology, to finalize the researches and examinations demanded by the government and to make comments, to make written or oral public announcements explaining the scientific data that shall increase the general level of Turkish society and enlighten the public, and to give non-formal education.
According to the Law, higher education institutions are responsible for the training of their own academic staff. Meanwhile, Primary and Secondary school teachers are trained in universities for 4 years and they get a BA degree at the end.
The major source of income of state universities is the funds allocated through the annual State budget, this is equivalent of about 60% of the total university income. In addition to this, a university can generate its own income from the services provided by that university, such as patient care in university hospitals. Student contributions to state universities form only 4% of the total university budget. Meanwhile, the student fees in private foundation (Vakif) universities are much higher.
At present, enrolment in the private universities accounts for only 5% of the total. Clearly, state universities are by far carrying the major portion of the load of higher education in Turkey.
Non-Formal Education
Non-formal education in Turkey is offered by a network of training centers who are supervised by the Ministry of National Education (MEB). Non-formal education services aim to teach reading-writing, help to continue education of students for finish their incomplete education, teach balanced nutrition and a healthy life style, teach people from various professions the knowledge and skills they need to improve themselves, and so on.
There is also Distance Higher Education which is offered at the Open Education Faculty of Anadolu University. This program lasts for 2 or 4 years.
Foreign Students Admission
Foreign students would like to enroll in the post-graduate programs of the Turkish institutions of higher education can apply directly to universities and must have completed their secondary education in a high school in which the education is equivalent to that of a Turkish lycee; they need to have it confirmed from a Turkish Embassy in their country and apply for a student visa. The applications of foreign students will be considered by the universities within their limit of the allocated places for foreigners. The students must also take the Foreign Student Entrance Examination (YÖS) which consists of two tests; a "basic learning skills test" where they must score at least 40, and a "Turkish language proficiency test" to see their Turkish language level, if any. Language courses are organized for those who do not speak Turkish, and in some Turkish universities courses are taught in English, French or German.
Foreign students must take the Graduate Education Entrance Examination or an international examination (GRE, GMAT, SAT, etc.) required by each university, the equivalency of which is recognized by the concerning university senate. The evaluation of the results of these examinations is carried out by the concerning universities.
Turkish University Links
Universities
* State Universities
* Private Universities
* Professional
* Military Schools
* in Cyprus
* Special Status
* Foreign students
Here you can find external links to all of the universities and other higher education institutions in Turkey. For a complete information on the Turkish education system, please Click Here.
Foreign students who wish to enroll to a Turkish university, can check this information out first and then apply to the university directly.
State Universities
Abant Izzet Baysal University (Bolu)
Adiyaman University (Adiyaman)
Adnan Menderes University (Aydin)
Afyon Kocatepe University (Afyon)
Agri Ibrahim Cecen University (Agri) NOT OPENED YET
Ahi Evran University (Kirsehir)
Akdeniz (Mediterranean) University (Antalya)
Aksaray University (Aksaray)
Amasya University (Amasya)
Anadolu (Anatolia) University (Eskisehir)
Ankara University (Ankara)
Artvin Coruh University (Artvin) NOT OPENED YET
Ardahan University (Ardahan) NOT OPENED YET
Ataturk University (Erzurum)
Balikesir University (Balikesir)
Batman University (Batman) NOT OPENED YET
Bilecik University (Bilecik) NOT OPENED YET
Bingol University (Bingol) NOT OPENED YET
Bitlis Eren University (Bitlis) NOT OPENED YET
Bogazici (Bosphorus) University (Istanbul)
Bartin University (Bartin) NOT OPENED YET
Bayburt University (Bayburt) NOT OPENED YET
Bozok University (Yozgat)
Celal Bayar University (Manisa)
Cumhuriyet (Republic) University (Sivas)
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart (18th March) University (Canakkale)
Cankiri Karatekin University (Cankiri) NOT OPENED YET
Cukurova University (Adana)
Dicle (Tigris) University (Diyarbakir)
Dokuz Eylul (9th September) University (Izmir)
Dumlupinar University (Kutahya)
Duzce University (Duzce)
Ege (Aegean) University (Izmir)
Erciyes University (Kayseri)
Erzincan University (Erzincan)
Eskisehir Osmangazi University (Eskisehir)
Firat (Euphrates) University (Elazig)
Galatasaray University (Istanbul)
Gazi University (Ankara)
Gaziantep University (Gaziantep)
Gaziosmanpasa University (Tokat)
Gebze High Technology Institute (Kocaeli)
Giresun University (Giresun)
Gumushane University (Gumushane) NOT OPENED YET
Hacettepe University (Ankara)
Hakkari University (Hakkari) NOT OPENED YET
Harran University (Sanliurfa)
Hitit (Hittite) University (Corum)
Igdir University (Igdir) NOT OPENED YET
Inonu University (Malatya)
Istanbul University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Technical University (Istanbul)
Izmir High Technology Institute (Izmir)
Kafkas University (Kars)
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University (Kahramanmaras)
Karabuk University (Karabuk)
Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University (Karaman)
Karadeniz (Black sea) Technical University (Trabzon)
Kastamonu University (Kastamonu)
Kirikkale University (Kirikkale)
Kirklareli University (Kirklareli)
Kilis 7 Aralik (September 7th) University (Kilis)
Kocaeli University (Kocaeli)
Mardin Artuklu University (Mardin) NOT OPENED YET
Marmara University (Istanbul)
Mehmet Akif Ersoy University (Burdur)
Mersin University (Mersin)
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University (Istanbul)
Mugla University (Mugla)
Mustafa Kemal University (Antakya)
Mus Alparslan University (Mus)
Namik Kemal University (Tekirdag)
Nevsehir University (Nevsehir)
Nigde University (Nigde)
Ondokuz Mayis (19th May) University (Samsun)
Ordu University (Ordu)
Orta Dogu (Middle East) Technical University (Ankara)
Osmangazi University (Eskisehir)
Osmaniye Korkut Ata University (Osmaniye)
Pamukkale University (Denizli)
Rize University (Rize)
Sakarya University (Sakarya)
Selcuk University (Konya)
Siirt University (Siirt)
Sinop University (Sinop)
Suleyman Demirel University (Isparta)
Sirnak University (Sirnak) NOT OPENED YET
Trakya (Thrace) University (Edirne)
Tunceli University (Tunceli) NOT OPENED YET
Uludag University (Bursa)
Usak University (Usak)
Yildiz Technical University (Istanbul)
Yuzuncu Yil (100th Year) University (Van)
Zonguldak Karaelmas (Black Diamond) University (Zonguldak)
Private Non-profit Foundation (Vakif) Universities
Acibadem University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Atilim University (Ankara)
Bahcesehir University (Istanbul)
Baskent (Capitol) University (Ankara)
Beykent University (Istanbul)
Bilkent University (Ankara)
Cag (Century) University (Mersin)
Cankaya University (Ankara)
Dogus University (Istanbul)
Halic (Golden Horn) University (Istanbul)
Fatih (Conqueror) University (Istanbul)
Isik (Light) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Arel University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Aydin University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Bilgi (Knowledge) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Bilim (Science) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Kemerburgaz University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Istanbul Kultur (Culture) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Sehir (City) University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Istanbul Ticaret (Commerce) University (Istanbul)
Izmir Ekonomi (Economy) University (Izmir)
Izmir University (Izmir) NOT OPENED YET
Kadir Has University (Istanbul)
Koc University (Istanbul)
Maltepe University (Istanbul)
Okan University (Istanbul)
Ozyegin University (Istanbul)
Piri Reis University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Sabanci University (Istanbul)
TOBB Ekonomi ve Teknoloji (Economy & Technology) University (Ankara)
Ufuk (Horizon) University (Ankara)
Yasar University (Izmir)
Yeditepe (Seven Hills) University (Istanbul)
Vakif Professional Higher Education
Kapadokya (Cappadocia) Profession High school (Nevsehir)
Police & Military Institutions Higher Education
Gulhane Military Tip (Medicine) Academy (Ankara)
Hava Harp (Air Force) High school Command (Istanbul)
Hava (Air Force) Astsubay (NCO) Profession High school (Izmir)
Kara Harp (Army) High school Command (Ankara)
Deniz Harp (Navy) High school Command (Istanbul)
Polis (Police) Academy (Ankara)
Universities in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (KKTC)
Dogu Akdeniz (Eastern Mediterranean) University (Famagusta - Cyprus)
Girne American University (Kyrenia - Cyprus)
Lefke Avrupa (European) University (Lefke - Cyprus)
Uluslararasi Kibris (International Cyprus) University (Nicosia - Cyprus)
Yakindogu (Near East) University (Nicosia - Cyprus)
Special Status State Universities
Ahmet Yesevi Turkish Kazak University (Ankara)
Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University (Bishkek - Kyrgyzstan)
Source: The Council of Turkish Higher Education (YOK)
* State Universities
* Private Universities
* Professional
* Military Schools
* in Cyprus
* Special Status
* Foreign students
Here you can find external links to all of the universities and other higher education institutions in Turkey. For a complete information on the Turkish education system, please Click Here.
Foreign students who wish to enroll to a Turkish university, can check this information out first and then apply to the university directly.
State Universities
Abant Izzet Baysal University (Bolu)
Adiyaman University (Adiyaman)
Adnan Menderes University (Aydin)
Afyon Kocatepe University (Afyon)
Agri Ibrahim Cecen University (Agri) NOT OPENED YET
Ahi Evran University (Kirsehir)
Akdeniz (Mediterranean) University (Antalya)
Aksaray University (Aksaray)
Amasya University (Amasya)
Anadolu (Anatolia) University (Eskisehir)
Ankara University (Ankara)
Artvin Coruh University (Artvin) NOT OPENED YET
Ardahan University (Ardahan) NOT OPENED YET
Ataturk University (Erzurum)
Balikesir University (Balikesir)
Batman University (Batman) NOT OPENED YET
Bilecik University (Bilecik) NOT OPENED YET
Bingol University (Bingol) NOT OPENED YET
Bitlis Eren University (Bitlis) NOT OPENED YET
Bogazici (Bosphorus) University (Istanbul)
Bartin University (Bartin) NOT OPENED YET
Bayburt University (Bayburt) NOT OPENED YET
Bozok University (Yozgat)
Celal Bayar University (Manisa)
Cumhuriyet (Republic) University (Sivas)
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart (18th March) University (Canakkale)
Cankiri Karatekin University (Cankiri) NOT OPENED YET
Cukurova University (Adana)
Dicle (Tigris) University (Diyarbakir)
Dokuz Eylul (9th September) University (Izmir)
Dumlupinar University (Kutahya)
Duzce University (Duzce)
Ege (Aegean) University (Izmir)
Erciyes University (Kayseri)
Erzincan University (Erzincan)
Eskisehir Osmangazi University (Eskisehir)
Firat (Euphrates) University (Elazig)
Galatasaray University (Istanbul)
Gazi University (Ankara)
Gaziantep University (Gaziantep)
Gaziosmanpasa University (Tokat)
Gebze High Technology Institute (Kocaeli)
Giresun University (Giresun)
Gumushane University (Gumushane) NOT OPENED YET
Hacettepe University (Ankara)
Hakkari University (Hakkari) NOT OPENED YET
Harran University (Sanliurfa)
Hitit (Hittite) University (Corum)
Igdir University (Igdir) NOT OPENED YET
Inonu University (Malatya)
Istanbul University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Technical University (Istanbul)
Izmir High Technology Institute (Izmir)
Kafkas University (Kars)
Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University (Kahramanmaras)
Karabuk University (Karabuk)
Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University (Karaman)
Karadeniz (Black sea) Technical University (Trabzon)
Kastamonu University (Kastamonu)
Kirikkale University (Kirikkale)
Kirklareli University (Kirklareli)
Kilis 7 Aralik (September 7th) University (Kilis)
Kocaeli University (Kocaeli)
Mardin Artuklu University (Mardin) NOT OPENED YET
Marmara University (Istanbul)
Mehmet Akif Ersoy University (Burdur)
Mersin University (Mersin)
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University (Istanbul)
Mugla University (Mugla)
Mustafa Kemal University (Antakya)
Mus Alparslan University (Mus)
Namik Kemal University (Tekirdag)
Nevsehir University (Nevsehir)
Nigde University (Nigde)
Ondokuz Mayis (19th May) University (Samsun)
Ordu University (Ordu)
Orta Dogu (Middle East) Technical University (Ankara)
Osmangazi University (Eskisehir)
Osmaniye Korkut Ata University (Osmaniye)
Pamukkale University (Denizli)
Rize University (Rize)
Sakarya University (Sakarya)
Selcuk University (Konya)
Siirt University (Siirt)
Sinop University (Sinop)
Suleyman Demirel University (Isparta)
Sirnak University (Sirnak) NOT OPENED YET
Trakya (Thrace) University (Edirne)
Tunceli University (Tunceli) NOT OPENED YET
Uludag University (Bursa)
Usak University (Usak)
Yildiz Technical University (Istanbul)
Yuzuncu Yil (100th Year) University (Van)
Zonguldak Karaelmas (Black Diamond) University (Zonguldak)
Private Non-profit Foundation (Vakif) Universities
Acibadem University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Atilim University (Ankara)
Bahcesehir University (Istanbul)
Baskent (Capitol) University (Ankara)
Beykent University (Istanbul)
Bilkent University (Ankara)
Cag (Century) University (Mersin)
Cankaya University (Ankara)
Dogus University (Istanbul)
Halic (Golden Horn) University (Istanbul)
Fatih (Conqueror) University (Istanbul)
Isik (Light) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Arel University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Aydin University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Bilgi (Knowledge) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Bilim (Science) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Kemerburgaz University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Istanbul Kultur (Culture) University (Istanbul)
Istanbul Sehir (City) University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Istanbul Ticaret (Commerce) University (Istanbul)
Izmir Ekonomi (Economy) University (Izmir)
Izmir University (Izmir) NOT OPENED YET
Kadir Has University (Istanbul)
Koc University (Istanbul)
Maltepe University (Istanbul)
Okan University (Istanbul)
Ozyegin University (Istanbul)
Piri Reis University (Istanbul) NOT OPENED YET
Sabanci University (Istanbul)
TOBB Ekonomi ve Teknoloji (Economy & Technology) University (Ankara)
Ufuk (Horizon) University (Ankara)
Yasar University (Izmir)
Yeditepe (Seven Hills) University (Istanbul)
Vakif Professional Higher Education
Kapadokya (Cappadocia) Profession High school (Nevsehir)
Police & Military Institutions Higher Education
Gulhane Military Tip (Medicine) Academy (Ankara)
Hava Harp (Air Force) High school Command (Istanbul)
Hava (Air Force) Astsubay (NCO) Profession High school (Izmir)
Kara Harp (Army) High school Command (Ankara)
Deniz Harp (Navy) High school Command (Istanbul)
Polis (Police) Academy (Ankara)
Universities in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (KKTC)
Dogu Akdeniz (Eastern Mediterranean) University (Famagusta - Cyprus)
Girne American University (Kyrenia - Cyprus)
Lefke Avrupa (European) University (Lefke - Cyprus)
Uluslararasi Kibris (International Cyprus) University (Nicosia - Cyprus)
Yakindogu (Near East) University (Nicosia - Cyprus)
Special Status State Universities
Ahmet Yesevi Turkish Kazak University (Ankara)
Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University (Bishkek - Kyrgyzstan)
Source: The Council of Turkish Higher Education (YOK)
Agriculture in Turkey
Agriculture is still the occupation of the majority of Turkish people, despite the share of industry and services are raising constantly. Turkey is one of the few self-sufficient countries in the world in terms of food. Turkey's fertile soil, adeguate climate, and abundant rainfall permit growing almost any kinds of crops. The farming is conducted in all of the regions in Turkey, but it's less practiced in the mountainous eastern regions where the main activity is based on animal husbandry which has a share of one-fourth of the gross value of the total agricultural production.
In terms of agricultural lands, Turkey is also one of the largest countries in the world. About 35.5% of the country are arable lands and 15% consists of forests. The cultivated land is around 26.5 million hectares as per 2004. Around 18.4% of the cultivated land is irrigated. Vegetable products account for 76% of total agricultural production, then animal husbandary, meanwhile forestry and fishing contribute a minimal amount. Fruits and field crops make up the most of vegetable products, wheat being the leading crop. As per the figures of 2003, Turkey is the world�s biggest producer of hazelnuts, figs, apricots and raisins, the 4th biggest producer of fresh vegetables and grapes, the 6th biggest producer of tobacco, the 8th biggest producer of wheat, and the 10th biggest producer of cotton. Tea is also large produced and exported. These numbers are more or less the same for 2007.
The rapid industrialization of Turkey after 1930's and government policies caused agriculture's share to decline in overall income. The share of the agricultural sector in the GNP was almost 50% in 1950, 25% in 1980, 15.3% in 1990, and 11% in 2005. This caused the fall of economic standards of the farmers and contributed to emigration from rural to urban areas. But in 1990's, the State encouraged the farmers to adopt modern techniques with the mechanization and has provided infrastructural conveniences for irrigation and cultivation contributing to the development of the agricultural sector. The most important of these projects is the Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP).
Despite agriculture's relative decline in the last 30 years, the sector still plays an important role in foreign trade. Turkey exports many agricultural products such as cereals, pulses, industrial crops, sugar, nuts, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and livestock products. The main export markets are the European Union, the United States, and the Middle East. Around 32% of total employment in Turkey is in agriculture sector, and total exports of agricultural products passes 8 billion USD (as of 2005).
The agricultural sector is currently undergoing a restructuring process in order to achieve harmonization with the EU regulations. Turkish farmers enrolled in the Farmer Registry System receive Direct Income Supports from the government, a premium system is practiced, and they receive chemical fertilizer support and diesel fuel support, as well as training for the latest agricultural techniques. The Agricultural Bank of Turkey (Ziraat Bankasi) provides most loans to farmers and cooperatives, much of the World Bank's lending for agricultural projects in Turkey is channeled through this bank.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is an important part of Turkey's agricultural sector and economy. The share of animal husbandry in the total agricultural output is around 25%. The number of cattle totals approximately 10 million and sheep around 25 million, they are kept mainly on the grazing lands of Anatolia. Wool is a significant export of Turkey, which is also used internally for making world-famous Turkish carpets.
Poultry production expanded rapidly after 1980's, Turkey has reached the level of developed nations in this sector: it's the world's 20th biggest poultry meat producer with 950,000 tons of poultry meat (as of 2005). Meanwhile, annual chick production in the country reaches 640 million, including 40 million for egg production.
Today, animal husbandry receives state support; artificial insemination, breeding, apiculture, fish farming, fodder and milk production are mainly supported.
Fishery
Despite Turkey's long coastline and large freshwater bodies, fishing is an underdeveloped industry compared to other sectors. The annual catch is a little bit over 400,000 tons for the sea fish and around 50,000 from fresh water. The Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, The Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean constitute the main fishing grounds. After 1990's, the fish farms were supported by the state and their numbers have grown. Today, Frogs' legs, snails, shrimp, and crayfish are some of the sea products exported. In 2007, it's estimated that the sea products export will be around 131 million USD, around 90% of this to the European Union.
As for the fish consumption, Turkey is also behind the world average: Turkish people eat 8 kilograms (17,6 pounds) of fish per capita per year, meanwhile the world average is around 16 kilograms and the EU average is around 22 kilograms per person.
In terms of agricultural lands, Turkey is also one of the largest countries in the world. About 35.5% of the country are arable lands and 15% consists of forests. The cultivated land is around 26.5 million hectares as per 2004. Around 18.4% of the cultivated land is irrigated. Vegetable products account for 76% of total agricultural production, then animal husbandary, meanwhile forestry and fishing contribute a minimal amount. Fruits and field crops make up the most of vegetable products, wheat being the leading crop. As per the figures of 2003, Turkey is the world�s biggest producer of hazelnuts, figs, apricots and raisins, the 4th biggest producer of fresh vegetables and grapes, the 6th biggest producer of tobacco, the 8th biggest producer of wheat, and the 10th biggest producer of cotton. Tea is also large produced and exported. These numbers are more or less the same for 2007.
The rapid industrialization of Turkey after 1930's and government policies caused agriculture's share to decline in overall income. The share of the agricultural sector in the GNP was almost 50% in 1950, 25% in 1980, 15.3% in 1990, and 11% in 2005. This caused the fall of economic standards of the farmers and contributed to emigration from rural to urban areas. But in 1990's, the State encouraged the farmers to adopt modern techniques with the mechanization and has provided infrastructural conveniences for irrigation and cultivation contributing to the development of the agricultural sector. The most important of these projects is the Southeast Anatolia Project (GAP).
Despite agriculture's relative decline in the last 30 years, the sector still plays an important role in foreign trade. Turkey exports many agricultural products such as cereals, pulses, industrial crops, sugar, nuts, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and livestock products. The main export markets are the European Union, the United States, and the Middle East. Around 32% of total employment in Turkey is in agriculture sector, and total exports of agricultural products passes 8 billion USD (as of 2005).
The agricultural sector is currently undergoing a restructuring process in order to achieve harmonization with the EU regulations. Turkish farmers enrolled in the Farmer Registry System receive Direct Income Supports from the government, a premium system is practiced, and they receive chemical fertilizer support and diesel fuel support, as well as training for the latest agricultural techniques. The Agricultural Bank of Turkey (Ziraat Bankasi) provides most loans to farmers and cooperatives, much of the World Bank's lending for agricultural projects in Turkey is channeled through this bank.
Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry is an important part of Turkey's agricultural sector and economy. The share of animal husbandry in the total agricultural output is around 25%. The number of cattle totals approximately 10 million and sheep around 25 million, they are kept mainly on the grazing lands of Anatolia. Wool is a significant export of Turkey, which is also used internally for making world-famous Turkish carpets.
Poultry production expanded rapidly after 1980's, Turkey has reached the level of developed nations in this sector: it's the world's 20th biggest poultry meat producer with 950,000 tons of poultry meat (as of 2005). Meanwhile, annual chick production in the country reaches 640 million, including 40 million for egg production.
Today, animal husbandry receives state support; artificial insemination, breeding, apiculture, fish farming, fodder and milk production are mainly supported.
Fishery
Despite Turkey's long coastline and large freshwater bodies, fishing is an underdeveloped industry compared to other sectors. The annual catch is a little bit over 400,000 tons for the sea fish and around 50,000 from fresh water. The Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, The Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean constitute the main fishing grounds. After 1990's, the fish farms were supported by the state and their numbers have grown. Today, Frogs' legs, snails, shrimp, and crayfish are some of the sea products exported. In 2007, it's estimated that the sea products export will be around 131 million USD, around 90% of this to the European Union.
As for the fish consumption, Turkey is also behind the world average: Turkish people eat 8 kilograms (17,6 pounds) of fish per capita per year, meanwhile the world average is around 16 kilograms and the EU average is around 22 kilograms per person.
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