The caravanserai is at the foot of the Çubuk Pass, vvhich at its crest is 925 meters above sea level, at vvhich point vve leave Pamphylia and enter the highlands of Pisidia. Referring to the geographer Artemidorus of Ephesus, \vho vvrote ca. 100 B.C, Strabo describes Pisidia in book XII of his Ceography, vvhere he vvrites about the Pisidians after his account of their neighbors to the north, the Lycaonians:
Contiguous lo ihese are the Pisidians, and in particular the Selgeis, who are ıhe most notable of the Pisidians. Novv the grealest part ol" thenı occupy the sunınıils of the Taurus, but some. situated above Side and Aspendus, Pamphylian cities, occupy hiily places.everyvvhere planted vvith olivc trees; and the region above this (we are now in ıhe mouıitains) is occupied by the Catanneis, whose country borders on that of the Selgeis and the Homonaeis; but the Sagalasseis occupy the region this side the Taurus that faces Milyas. Artemidorus says that ıhe cities of the Pisidians are Selgc, Sagallasus, Petnelissus, Adada, Tymbriada. Cremna, Pityassus, Amblada. Anabura, Sinda, Aarassus, Tarbassus, and Termessos. Of these, some are entirely in the mountains, vvhile others extend cven as far as the foot-hills on either side, to both Pamphylia and Milyas. and border on the Phrygians and the Lydians and the Carians. \vhich are ali peaceable tribes, although they are situated tou'ards the north .. .And the nature of the region is vvonderful, for among the summits of the Taurus there is a country vvhich can supporl tens of ihousands of inhabitanıs and is so fertile ıhaı it is planted vvith the olive in many places, and vvith fine vineyards, and produces abundant pasture for catıle of ali kinds: and above this country, ali round il, lie forests of various kinds of timber.
Just beyond the Çubuk Pass a signposted road on the left leads to the site of ancient Ariassos, a drive of about one kilo-meter. This is the city that Strabo, quoting Artemidorus, calls Aarassus. The site vvas discovered in 1885 by Austrian arehae-ologists, vvbo incorrectly identified it as Cretopolis. The correct identificalion vvas made in 1892 by French epigraphers, vvho deciphered inseriptions on the site and also found coins of Ariassos dating from the Hellenistic period to the mid-third cen-tury A.D. The site vvas surveyed in 1988-89 by a team of British archacologists headcd by Stephcn Mitchell, vvho identified the extant monııments and mapped the site.
Roımın Galemıy al Arias.uı.s
The ancient city vvas built at the bottom and on the terraced orth slope of a steep-sided valley, vvilh the original Hellenistic civic cenler to the southvvest and the later Roman tovvn to the northeast. The most prominent monument is a three-arched monumental Roman gatevvay at the northcastern end of the val¬ley, an almost perfectly preserved strueture standing to its full height of some 12 meters. The gatevvay is dated to the period A.D. 220-40. The consoles on its facade originally supported honorific statucs. The main street of the Roman tovvn led soııth-vvestvvard to the forum, novv occupied by the ruins of an carly Byzantine basilican ehureh. The basilica, 23.4 meters long and 14.4 meters vvide, comprised a cenlral nave flanked by a pair of aisles, vvith a narthex on the vvest and a semicircular apse vvith a synthronon at the cast—the chamber at the southvvest corner probably being the bapiistery. The street continues beyond the forum to a gymnasium-bath :>mplc.\, dated by inseriptions lo the first half of the third cen-Ury A.D. One of the inseriptions, bearing the date A.D. 214-15,
26
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
is from thc base of a statııe of ihe emperor Caracalla (r. 211 -17). At the southvvest end of the valley there are the remains of a Roman nymphaeum.
The buildings of the Hellenistic civic center were grouped around a small paved agora at the southvveslern end of the valley. The remains of the bouleuterion are on the north side, a rectangu-lar structure measuring some 18 by 14 melers. w idi ten rpws of seats arrayed around a small orehestra. Opposite the bouleuterion are the ruins of a small prostyle temple, and to the southvvest there is a small building that may havc becn the prytaneion, or senate house.
There are extensive burial grounds outside the city to the east, south, and southvvest. The monuments inelude lidded cists, sar-cophagi, and at least t\venty-five mausolea, many of them vvell preserved.
We novv return to the main highvvay and continue driving north. After about fi ve kilometers vve pass the village of Boğazköy. East of the village there are the ruins of a small ancient city on a hillside. An inseription has identified this as Panemoteichos, a place not mentioned by Strabo among the cities of Pisidia. The earliesl evidence of its existence comes from coins minted during the third century A.D. beginning vvith those of Caracalla and his mother Julia Domna, vvidovv of Septimius Severus. Ali that is lef t of the ancient city are some scattered architectural fragments, many of them built into the village houses. One of them, an inseribed stele, has becn set up in the center of the village; the inseription rceords the dedica-lion of a statue of Septimius Severus (r. 193-211) erceted by the council and people of Panemoteichos.
About a kilometer farther along vve turn left on the road to Korkuteli, Highvvay 635, vvhich four kilometers from the junc-tion passes the village of Kızılkaya. About five kilometers beyond Kızılkaya vve turn off to the right on a road signposted for Ürkütül, a drive of some three kilometers. This brings us
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 27
to the site of an ancient city on and around a mound knovvn as Şerefeönü Höyük. The mound is covered vvith pottery shards and roughly carved stone fragments, vvhile numerous ancient architectural fragments are scattered in the surrounding fields. George Bean identified this as Comama, vvhich Augustus (r. 27 B.C.-A.D. 14) founded as a base for the Roman army ca. 25 B.c.
Stephen Mitchell has recently identified the site of ancient Cretopoiis at the village of Yüreğil, six kilometers duc north of Şerefeönü Höyük. The earliest mention of the city is by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus in his account of the cam-paign of Antigonus against Alcetas in 319 B.c. Diodorus vvrites that Antigonus marehed his forces south from Cappadocia to Pisidia as far as "the city of the Cretans," vvherc he defeated Alcetas. Alcetas then retreated to Termessos, vvhere he subse-quently commıtted suicide. The name Cretopoiis is believed to stem from the fact that Alexander settled some Crctan veterans of his army there after his campaign in Pisidia. Ali that remains of the ancient city are some architectural fragments, most of them built into the local houses, as vvell as numerous shards from the Roman period.
Returning to Highvvay 650, vve continue driving northvvard, passing on our left the shallovv lake knovvn as Kestel Gölü. At the point vvhere the highvvay comes eloseşt to the lake, vve turn right on a road that in a kilometer or so takes us to the Susuz Han, a Seljuk caravanserai built late in the reign of Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev II around 1246. The building, vvhich is very vvell preserved, is square in plan, measuring 26.5 meters on a side.The elaboratcly carved entryvvay Icads to the central aisle, from vvhich five trans-verse aisles lead off on either side, ali of them covered vvith ogi ve vaults, vvith a dome on a drum over thc central erossing.
We return to the highvvay önce again and continue driving north for another nine kilometers or so. We then turn right on a road signposted for the tovvn of Bucak, a drive of three kilometers.
NORTH FROM ANTALYA
29
There is nothing of interest in the tovvn itself, but it is a base for visiting t\vo ancient Pisidian sites.
The first of these is near the village of Çamlık, a drive of about tvvelve kilometers east-northeast of Bucak. This is the site of ancient Cremna, fırst investigated in the 1880s by the Austrian Count von Lanckoronski. Nothing further vvas done until the I970s, vvhen it vvas excavated by archaeologists from istanbul University under Jale İnan; in more recent years a nevv study has been made by a British team directed by Stephen Mitchell. A large collection of Cremna's coins from the first century B.c. are novv exhibited in the Burdur Archaeological Museum.
Cremna's lofty site vvas thought to make it impregnable, though it surrendered to Alexander during his Pisidian campaign. Then in 25 B.c. it fell to King Amyntas, a client of the Romans, vvho at that time ruled much of vvest-central Asia Minör. Strabo describes the fail of Cremna and the subsequent fate of Amyntas in book XII of his Geography, vvhere he gives a vivid picture of vvarfare in the mountains of Pisidia in his ovvn time:
Novv Amyntas capturecl Cremna, and, passing inlo the country of the Honıonadeis, vvho vvere considered too strong to capture, and having novv established himsclf as master of most of these places, having cven slain their tyrant, vvas caught by treachery through the artifice of the tyrant's vvife. And he vvas pul to death by those peoplc, but Cyrinius |Sulpicius Quirinus, governor of Syria| overthrevv the inhabitants by starving them, and captured alive four thousand men and settled them in the neighbour-ing cities, leaving the country dcstitute of ali its men vvho vvere in the prime of life. İn the midst of the heights of the Taurus, vvhich are very stcep and for the most part impassable, there is a hollovv and fertile plain vvhich is divided into several valleys. But though the people tilled this plain, they lived on the overhanging brovvs of the mountains or in caves. They vvere armcd for the most part and vvere vvont to overrun the country of others, having mountains that served as vvalls about their country.
Aftcr the death of Amyntas his kingdom vvas annexed by Rome, the vvestern part becoming the province of Galatia.
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PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
Augustus established a Roman colony in Cremna and rebuilt the city's defense \valls, vvhîch three centuries later vvere restored by the emperor Probus (r. 276-82). The Iatter restoration vvas necessitated by the great damage that the \valls had suffered (ca. 270) when Cremna vvas seized by a Pisidian brigand chieftain named Lydius, vvho held out against the Romans for some time before they vvere able to recapture the city.
The ancient city is on a spectacular hilltop site high above the Aksu Çayı, the river Cestrus of antiquity. in her book Roman Colonies in Southern Asia Minör Barbara Levick describes the site \vith the follovving quote from Count von Lanckoronski:
Cremna stoocl on a plaîeau whiclı Count Lanckoronski vvell described as having the shape of the head and shoulders of a flying eagle, \vith the beak tovvards t hu east. Only on the castern side. aeross the neck of the eagle, is the site easy of access. Here the ground falls away in a gentle slope. Along the w hole length of the southem side run narrovv ledges baeked by steep cliffs, and it is on one of these that the south gate is plaeed. An cnemy \vho tried to enter by this gate vvould be at the merey of the defenders above on his left. The plateau is cut ofl on the approachable vvestern side by a line of fortifications running right aeross its vvidth. Outside this wall is the ceme-tery; vvithin a site of about ninety acres.
The hill slopes dovvn precipitously on ali sides except the vvest, vvhere an ancient road leads up to the aeropolis. The sum-mit is a long and narrovv plateau tapering irregularly to an apex on the east, measuring 1,200 meters east-vvest and 200-500 meters north-south. The ancient defense vvall that proteeted the aeropolis on its vvestern and southern sides survives to a large extent, along vvith tvvo of its gatevvays. The necropolis vvas out¬side the main gate at the vvestern end of the plateau, as evi-denced by the sareophagi lying there. There is also a ruined Byzantine church outside the vvalls at the poinl vvlıere lhe ancient road reaches the summit of the hill.
The civic center of Cremna vvas at the narrovvest part of the aeropolis, approachcd via a stoa some 150 meters in length
32
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDİA 1
NORTH FROM ANTALYA
33
flanked by t\vin colonnades, a monument dating from the reign ol' Hadrian (r. 117-138). I his Icd lo the main square of ihe Roman tovvn, the Forum Longus,dominated on its northern side by a basilica. At the northvvest corner of the forum we see the splcndid remains of a great marble stairvvay that led to a propy-lon and nymphaeum. At the foot of the stairvvay there is a dam-aged but stili beautiful relief from an exedra, its central figüre a goddess identified as Artemis. South of the forum there are the remains of a handsome library of \vhich one vvall has survived to almost its full height along vvith tvvo arches. East of the forum is the theater, vvhich faces northvvest över a stoa. At its eastern end this stoa leads to a gymnasium, and just beyond that is a pi-shaped Doric stoa knovvn as the Forum Marcellum, a structure originally erected in the Hellenistic period and rebuilt in the imperial Roman era. Other monuments include four small tem-ples and a second Byzantine church, ali of them arraycd along the northern edgc of the plateau.
The second site is t\venty-five kilometers southeast of Bucak on Highvvay 15-26. At the road's end vve come to Kocaaliler, formerly knovvn as Melli, from vvhere a \valk of about a kilo-meter to the southeast brings us to an ancient site that George Bean identified as ancient Milyas. Bean based his identificalion partly on the supposition that Melli, the former name of the nearby tovvn vvas a form of Milyas; but some authorities are not convinced by this. Bean also based his identification on a refer-ence by Strabo in book XII of his Geography. in describing Phaselis, Strabo vvrites: "Above it lies Solyma, a mountain, and alsoTermessos, a Pisidian city situated ncar the defıles, through vvhich there is a pass över the mountains to Milyas. Alexander destroycd Milyas for the reason that he vvished to öpen the defıles." The site here is near one of the passes that leads to Termessos, but ııeithcr does this fact convince many authorities, and its identification as Milyas remains in doubt.
in any event, the ancient city is situated on the top of a hill overlooking one of the tributaries of the river Cestrus. On the summit vve see the remains of a polygonal vvall dating from the early Hellenistic period. Near the summit, on the northeast slope of the hill, vve see the ruins of the Hellenistic theater, of vvhich only ten or so tiers of seats remain of the cavea, as vvell as part of its stage building. Farther dovvn the slope there are the scat-tered masonry blocks of a number of unidentified buildings.The main necropolis vvas on the northvvest slope of the hill, vvhere there are a number of sarcophagi and other funerary monuments. There is also a relief carved on a rocky hillside visible from the path that leads from the tovvn to the archaeological site.
We novv make our vvay back to the main highvvay via Bucak and continue driving north. After about a kilomcter vve turn off to the left on a road that soon brings us to the İncir Hanı, a Seljuk caravanserai built in 1239 by Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev II.
The building is partly in ruins but nonetheless impressive, particularly its ornately carved entryvvay, vvhose fluted outer arch is flanked by the small figures in lovv relief of tvvo con-fronted lions. The gatevvay leads to the outer courtyard, a square area measuring 36 meters on a side. A second gatevvay leads to the caravanserai proper, 28 meters vvide and 40 meters long, comprising a central aisle flanked by seven pairs of transverse corridors, ali of them of them covered vvith ogive vaults, vvith a dome raised on a drum över the central crossing to provide light and ventilation.
Monday, May 4, 2009
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA
sel it down in ironi of him, and kept on his head anolher ornamental bonnet of silk or other material. in ıhe center of their hail was a son of platform placed there for visilors. When we took our place, they served up a greal banquet followed by fruits and svveelmeals, after which they began to sing and dance. We vvere filled vvith admiration and were greatly astonished at their openhandedness and generosity. We took leave of thcm at the close of the night and left thcm in their hospice.
Beaufort observed that the Greeks of Antalya spoke only Turkish, as vvas the case elsevvhere in Anatolia at that time. Greek vvas stili used in the Iiturgy of the Greek Orthodox churches in Antalya, though ncither the pricsts nor their congre-gation understood that language, as Beaufort observes in his Karamania:
The population of Adalia probably does not exceed 8000, two-thirds of vvhich I undeutand to be Mohammedan, the other third Greek.These Greeks are acquaintcd »itli no other language tlıaıı Turkish. but though some of their prayers are translated into that language, ıhe principal part of their Iiturgy continues to be repcated in Greek by the Papas, or priests, of vvhom ıhe greater number are as ignorant of the meaning, as their congregalion.
The oldest part of Antalya is the quarter around the port, vvhose monuments inelude struetures from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, and Ottoman pcriods, as vvell as a number of picturesque old Turkish houses, some of vvhich have been vvell restored in recenl years. Around the port quarler there are stili some stretehes of the ancient defense vvalls and tovvers. These fortifications vvere originally built in the Hellenistic period, though most of vvhat novv survives is Roman, along vvith consid-erable parts dating from a reconstruction by Manuel 1 Comnenus (r. 1143-80). Beaufort \vrites of the ancient vvalls in his Karamania, vvhere he refers to the lovvn as Adalia:
Adalia is beautifully situated around a small harbour; the streets appear to rise behind each other like ıhe seats of a theatre; and on the level summit of the hill, the city is enelosed by a diteh, a double vvall, and a scries of square tovvers about fıfty yards asunder. Wc cndeavoured lo obtain permission to pass along the insides of
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 7
the vvalls, and to examine them and the tovvers; bul Ihe Bey reminded us of the rigid lavvs of the empire on thai subjecl, and vvithout absolutely refusing, put it to my feelings vvhether, circumstanced as he vvas vvith regard to the I'orte, I vvould urgc him to do, vvhat his enemies vvould not fail to distort into a grave offence. There vvas no ansvvering this appeal,and vve contented ourselves vvith an extemal vievv.
The course of the ancient city vvalls is follovved by the tvvo main avenues of dovvntovvn Antalya, vvith Cumhuriyet Caddesi bounding the old quarter on the northvvest and Atatürk Caddesi on the northeast. Near the northern end of Cumhuriyet Caddesi, just before it intersects Atatürk Caddesi, vve see the elock tovver, a landmark at the city center. The quarter around the tovver is called the Kale Kapısı, "the Castle Gate," named for one of the long-vanished gatevvays in the ancient vvalls of Antalya. The mosque to the right of the elock tovver is the eighteenth-century Tekeli Mehmet Paşa Camii.
Gale of Hadrian. AnUüyu
The best-preserved streteh of the ancient vvalls is along Atatürk Caddesi, vvhich runs soııtheast from its intersection vvith Cumhuriyet Caddesi and then curves around to the cliffs south of the port. A short vvay along the avenue vve see the Gate of , a monumental propylon (gatevvay) built to celebrate the emperor's vpsit to Attaleia in A.D. 130. The gatevvay, flanked by tvvo huge tovvers of the original Hellenistic vvalls, consists of three coffered arches of equal size, vvith four Corinthian columns standing on detached pedestals in front of the piers that support the arches.
At the seavvard end of Atatürk Caddesi there is another impressive monument of Roman Attaleia—the eolossal tovver knovvn as the Hıdırlık Kulesi. This massive structure, vvhich probably dates from the second century A.D., consists of a square base supporting a round tovver, vvith a poorly built parapet that seems to have been added in the Byzantine era. The tovver resembles the Castel San'Angelo, Hadrian's mausoleum in Rome, and it is believed to have been built as a sepulcher for a local Roman notable.
The most prominent monument in Antalya is the Yivli Minare Camii, "the Mosque vvith the Fluted Minaret," vvhich stands belovv the south side of Cumhuriyet Caddesi some 300 meters from the elock tovver. The fluted shaft of this striking minaret is built of pink-red bricks into vvhich have been set small pieces of blue-green Seljuk tiles. The minaret vvas ereeted by the Seljuk sultan Alaettin Keykubat I (r. 1219-36) in 1219. Originally the minaret vvas attoched to a mosque that had been a Byzantine church before the Seljuk capture of Attaleia in 1207. This edifice vvas replaced in 1373 by the present mosque, vvhich vvas founded by Mehmet Bey, emir of the Hamitoğlu beylik. The interior is covered by three pairs of domes supported by tvvelve columns in three rovvs of four each, some of them surmounted by ancient Ionic and Corinthian capitals. Mehmet Bey also ereeted the türbe (tomb) that stands in the courtyard above the mosque, a distinetive structure vvith a pyramidal roof. This vvas built in 1377 as a sepulcher for Mehmet Bey's eldest son, vvho died before he could succeed his father as emir.The other building in the upper courtyard is an eighteenth-century tekke, or dervish lodgc, used by the Mcvlevis—the famous vvhirling dervishes.
Directly aeross the courtyard from the mosque there are the ruins of tvvo Seljuk medresen, or theological sehools. The isolated portal to the right is ali that remains of the medrese built in 1239 by Sultan Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev II (r. 1236-46). On the other side are the more substantial remains of the medrese founded ca. 1220 by Gıyasettin's father, Alaettin Keykubat I.
Along the vvinding streets in the upper part of the old quarter inside the vvalls there are a number of interesting monuments. One of these is the Karatay Medresesi, founded in 1250 by the vizier Celalettin Karatay, one of the great builders in Seljuk his-tory. Another is the Kesik Minare Camii, "the Mosque vvith the Truncated Minaret." This vvas originally a church dedicated to the Virgin, converted to a mosque after the Seljuk capture of Attaleia. This once-splendid basilica, novv an utter ruin, vvas built in the fıfth century, serving as the cathedral of Byzantine Attaleia until the city fell to the Seljuks.
Hıdırlık Kulesi, Antalya
The Antalya Archaeological Museum is some tvvo kilometers vvest of the tovvn center, approached by dri ving out along Kenan Evren Bulvarı just beyond thejunclion vvith Piri Reis Caddesi. This is one of the most interesting and attractive of ali Ihe local museums in Turkey. it has exhibits from the enlire speetrum of civilizations in southvvestern Turkey, ineluding Pamphylia, Lycia, and Pisidia.The oldest objccts are from the Karain Cave, a Palaeolithic site on the upper tier of the Pamphylian plain. The thirteen rooms in the museum cover the whole range of the area's archaeological past: Palaeolithic, Chalcolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, Iron, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Seljuk, Beylik, and Ottoman. Three rooms are devoted to the ethnological colleetion, vvhich has fascinating exhibits associated vvith the local Yuruks, or nomads.
Our itinerary vvill now take us north from Antalya into Pisidia, the region vvifhin the Taurus Mountains north of the Pamphylian plain. We begin by driving inland on Highvvay 650, the road to Burdur; then after eleven kilometers \ve turn left on Highvvay 350, the road to Korkuteli.
Some seven kilometers along Highvvay 350 vve make a detour lo the right for the Evdir Hanı, a Seljuk caravanserai built by Sultan İzzettin Keykavus I (r. 1210-19), son of Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev I, the conqueror of Attaleia. During the thirteenth century the Seljuks built scores of these caravanserais along the roads of Anatolia as hostels for merehants, greatly stimulating the commerce of the subeontinent. About fifty of these hand-some buildings are stili standing, though almost ali have fallen into ruin; nevertheless-they continue to be impressive land-marks on the othervvise stark and featureless landscapc of cen-tral Anatolia. The Evdir Hanı remained in use almost to the end of the Ottoman era, though by then it had seen better days. This is cvident from the account of Spralt and Forbes in their Travels in Lycia, Milyas and the Cybaritis, published in 1847:
The entrance lo the khan is a magnificeni gatevvay of Saracenic arehitec-lure, highly ornamented. and in part ccmstructed of white marble. The mar-
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PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 13
ble slabs bore inscriptions, probably sentences from the koran. Within is a greaı couri, surrounded by lofty, vaulted cloisters, now partly in ruins; here we lodged, lighting our fire under the arches, and picketing our horses in the quadranglc. The lodging vvas snug cnough, bul had the disadvantage of having been the camp of a mighty army of fleas, vvho forthvviıh, regarding us as natural enemies, proceeded to the attack; and although each of the party literally slevv hundreds, did not seem in the least diminished by the morning. During ıhe night they made incessant efforts to destroy us, and vve arose in a very uncomfortable state and much wounded.
Betvveen the caravanserai and the main road there are the scattered ruins of an ancient city of unknown name. Spratt and Forbes seem to have been the first foreign travelers to report on the site, vvhich they examined in 1842 after their flea-tormented night in the Evdir Hant:
The ruins of the city surrounding the khan appear to be of later date, and are constructed of smali stones vvith mortar. There are several early churches and numerous sarcophagi, which are ranged in double rovvs at the sides of the ancient approaches, forming sacred ways. in the centre are the ruins of a handsome mausoleum. Many of the sarcophagi are inscribed, but although vve examined nearly ali, none of those vvhich are legible presented the name of the city. Nearly ali the inscriptions conclude vvith notice that the fine imposed for violating the tomb should be paid to the gods of Solymi. The most singular feature of the ruins are aqueducts, vvhich intersect the city in ali directions, and are formed from solid vvalls from eight to ten feet high.ThesealI leadoff from a largerand principal duct.that must havecon-veyed a considerable quantity of vvater, judging from the breadth of the channel.
A large number of the sarcophagi menlioned by Spratt and Forbes have survived, most of them half-buried and broken. in the southern part of the site there is a heap of ruins that vvas önce a smali temple, of vvhich there remain huge blocks of its richly sculptured archilrave, as vvell as parts of its coffered ceiling and spirally fluted columns. Also in its vicinity there are tvvo curious sculptural fragments represenling a male figüre mounted on vvhat appears to be a seahorse. George Bcan suggests that the name of the tovvn vvas Anydrus, "Waterless," a place mcntioned in the inscriptions of Termessos, a likely identification in vievv of the numerous vvater channels that it vvas necessary lo create here.
Returning to Highvvay 350, vve continue on for fıve kilometers until vve come to the main entrance of the Termessos National Park, a beautiful vvooded area on the slopes of Güllük Dağı, "the Rosc-Garden Mountain." From the entrance it is a drive of nine kilometers up to the car park belovv the site of ancient Termessos. En route vve pass some of the oullying ruins of the city, fırst a vvatchtovver; then some stretehes of a road knovvn as the King's Way, laid dovvn in the second century A.D.; and finally the base of a ceremonial gatevvay vvhere one enlered the lovver environs of the city. This brings us to the car park, vvhence a steep path leads up to the main site of the city.
Termessos is perehed on a subsidiary summit of the tvvin-peakcd Güllük Dağı, the ancient Mt. Solymus, vvhich rises to an elevation of 1,216 meters abovc sea level. The ancient city is set in a Iandscape of vvild beauty on the summit, its ruins com-pletely overgrovvn vvith trees, thickets, and shrubbery, the tombs and sarcophagi of its necropolis tumbled dovvn the slope of the mountainside in vvild disorder.
Although Termessos is often ineluded vvithin Lycia, it is aetu-ally in Pisidia. The people of Termessos alvvays referred to themselves as Solymoi, the vvarrior race vvho lived in these mountains beforc the coming of the Lycians. Homer, in telling the story of Bellerophon in book VI of The /Had, calls them "the glorious Solymoi."
The first historical reference to Termessos appears in 333 B.C., vvhen Alexander made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city. Arrian deseribes the site of Termessos in his account of Alexander's campaigns, vvhere he mistakenly refers to the city as Telmissus:
The people of Telmissus are an Asiatic race of Pisidian blood; the tovvn stands on a lofty and precipitous height, and the road vvhich leads past it is
14
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA 1
an inconvcııient one. because a ridge runs right down to it from Iho toun above, breaking off short with the road at the boltom, vvhile opposite it, on (hc other side, the ground rises again in an equally steep ascent. The tvvo cliffs make a natural gatcway on the road, so that quite a small force can, by holding the high ground, prevent an enemy from marching through. And this is prccisely vvhat the Telmissians did: they marched out vvith every availablc man anıl oecupied the heights on either side of the road. Alexander, accordingly, gave the order lo halt at önce, convinced that when the enemy savv his men taking up a position for the night they would no longer hold the road in force but withdraw the majority of their tfoops into the tan near by. leaving only a small party on the hills to keep a vvateh-His guess proved right; the main body retired, and only the outposts remained. Alexander then promptly moved to the attack with a force con-sisting of the arehers, the javclin battalions. and the ınore mobile infantry. The small force on the hills, unable to vvithstand the force of his missiles, abandoned the position, and Alexander moved on through the narrovv pas-sage and took up a fresh position near the town.
Alexander eventually abandoned his attempt to capture Termessos, realizing that it vvould not be possible to reduce it without a long siege. And so he broke off the siege and vvent on to attack the other cities of Pisidia, some of vvhich, according to Arrian, "he took by storm, |while) others surrendered to him without resistance."
Fourteen years later the city vvas attacked by Anligonus, one of the Diadochi, the generals of Ale.tander vvho divided up his empire after his death in 323 B.c. At the time Termessos vvas being held by another of AIexander's former generals named Alcetas, vvho vvas supportcd by the younger citizens of the city. The elders of Termessos, unvvilling to facc a siege, sent vvord to the enemy camp that they vvould seize Alcetas and turn him över dead or alive to Antigonus. Alcetas learned of this plot only after his supporters had been dravvn avvay from Termessos by a ruse, and vvhen the city elders attempted to take hold of him he committed suicide rather than surrender. The elders thereupon sent his body to Antigonus, vvho vvas frustrated in his attempt to take Termessos vvhen the supporters of Alcetas relurned and took control of the city. Antigonus then placcd the body of
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 15
Alcetas in a prominent spot vvhere it could be seen from the vvalls of Termessos, and for three days he subjected the corpse to unspeakable indignities, attempting to provoke the defenders into making a foray outside the city. When there vvas no response after three days Antigonus gave up in frustration and marched his army avvay, after vvhich the supporters of Alcetas took the mangled body of their dead leader and buried it vvith great honors, aftervvards ereeting a splendid memorial över his grave.
A short vvay to the right of the car park vve see a ceremonial gatevvay knovvn as the Propylon of Hadrian. The propylon marked the entrance to the temenos (sacred precinet) of a temple, novv in ruins, and presumably dedicated to Hadrian (r. 117-38). The remains indicate that this vvas an Ionic peripteral temple vvith a cella 8 meters in vvidth, of vvhich the principal remnant is the doorvvay vvith its finely carved lintel, surrounded by numerous architectural fragments.
The path to the summit follovvs much the samc course as the uppermost streteh of the King's Way. This takes us through the inner defense vvall, vvhere vve see the remains of a gatevvay and a vvatchtovver. The inner east vvall of the gatevvay bears an inseription that George Bean has interpreted as the beginning of a "dice oracle," one of many such examples in Asia Minör. The dice used vvere knovvn as astragal i. They vvere the neck bones of a sheep or other animal, vvhich could land vvith one of four sides facing up, each of vvhich vvas given a numerical value. Usually five astragali vvere throvvn, giving a set of five numbers. Each of the resulting fıve-digit numbers corresponded to a pronounce-ment of the oracle in verse, almost alvvays a response to a ques-tion put by the pilgrim at the shrine. As Bean vvrites about these oracular verses: 'There is a remarkable sameness about the responses, and it seems that the elient vvas expected to ask only about the advisability of some course of action; the god's advicc is in effect confined to tvvo alternatives: 'Go ahead,' or 'Wait.' The elient might save himself trouble by flipping a coin."
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 17
Continuing upvvard along the path, \ve now ascend a flight of steps and pass through the inner fortifıcation wall, an impressive structure that in part is standing to its ful I height. Here vve see on our left the extensive ruins of a gymnasium, unexcavated and completely overgrovvn. On our right are the remains of a long street önce bordered on both sides by colonnaded stoas lined \vith shops, vvith statues betvveen the columns and sometimes in front of them as vvell, forty-seven sculptures in ali. Only the bases of the statues have survived, more than half of them honoring victors in the games.almost exclusively vvrestlers, the others commemorating priests, magistrates and other officials. After vve pass the colonnaded street, the path divides, and vve take the left fork to approach the city center.
This brings us to the agora, vvhich is in total ruins and com¬pletely overgrovvn. The agora is bordered on its northvvest side by a tvvo-storied Doric stoa vvhich bears an inscription record-ing that it vvas dedicated by Attalus II of Pergamum. Attalus probably dedicated the stoa as an act of gratitude to the Termessians for having fought as his allies during the siege of the Pisidian city of Selge, long an enemy of Termessos. Beneath this side of the agora there are five deep cisterns, to vvhich vvater vvas conducted by an aqueduct. On the northeast side of the agora there vvas a similar stoa erected in the Roman era by a vvealthy citizen of Termessos named Osbaras. At the southvvest corner of the agora a large outcropping of rock has been carved into a heroon, the tomb and shrine of a deified hero. Three niches on the vvest side of the rock vvere presumably receptacles for dedicatory offerings to the hero.
Beyond the agora to the vvest is the vvell-preserved theater, standing on a spectacular site facing vvest across the inlervening valley tovvard the tvvin peaks of Mt. Solymus. The structure dates from the Hellenistic period, and though rebuilt in the Roman era, it retains its original Greek plan—the cavea (area vvhere the theatergoers sat) forming more than a semicircle. The
18 PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
NORTH FROM ANTALYA
19
Theater, Termessos
t\vo paradoi that scparate the cavea ffom the stage building vvere originally öpen, in the Greek style, but in the Roman imperial era the southern one vvas replaced by a covered passagevvay when the auditorium vvas expanded on that side. The stage building, vvhich in its present form seems to date from the late second century A.D., comprises only the stage and a long and narrovv room behind it. The auditorium has one diazoma (the passage that divided the lower from the upper rows of seals), vvith sixteen rovvs of seats belovv and eight above, giving an estimaled capacity of 4,200 spectators.The main entrance to the auditorium is by an arched doorvvay in the middle of the rear vvall, from vvhcre a broad stairvvay leads do\vn to the diazoma. The keystonc in the arch of the doorvvay supported a statue of the youthful Heracles, dedicated by the city.
South of the theater there is an unusually vvell-preserved building, its vvalls in some placcs standing to a height of almost 10 meters.This has bcen identified as an odeion, or conçert hail, although il ma\ also havc served as the bouleuterion.or council
house.The building dates from the Hcllcnistic period,and com-bines both Doric and Ionic elements in its design, most notably in the pilasters in the upper parts of ils outer face.
Just to the west of the odeion are the remains of a beautifully constructed temple comprising only a cella, measuring 6.1 by 7.36 meters, its vvalls stili standing to a height of 4 meters. The Austrian archaeologists vvho excavated this temple bel i eve that it vvas dedicated to Zeus Solymeus, the patron deity of Termessos.
There are the remains of another temple just to the south of the odeion. This is a vvell-preserved prostyle temple (one vvith a pronaos, or front porch), ils square cella measuring 5.5 meters on each side. The temple vvas dedicated to Artemis, as noted in an inseription on the lintel of the perfectly preserved door. The inseription also records that the temple and its cult statue of Artemis vvere endovved by Aurelia Armasta, vvith the help of her husband, and that the decoration and si\ silver images ol the goddess vvere paid for by her mother. The temple has been dated to the first half of the third century A.D.
Southeast of this edifice there are the foundations of an ear-lier temple of Artemis. The architectural fragments indicate that this vvas a peripteral Doric hexastyle temple vvith six columns at the ends and eleven on the sides, dating from the mid-second century A.D. One of the reliefs vvith vvhich the temple vvas decorated shovvs Artemis in the sacrificial scene from Iphigenia in Aulis, the tragedy by Euripides.
There is another temple just to the south of this earlier sanc-tuary of Artemis. This is a templum-in-antis vvith Corinthian columns, its cella measureş 6.9 by 5.78 meters and stands on a highpodium. Architectural fragments indicate that the temple dates from the late Roman period, but there is no evidence to identify the deity to vvhom it vvas dedicated.
There are tvvo more temples to the vvest of the city center, south and southeast of the Stoa of Attalus. Thcy are proslyle
20 PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA 1
temples \vith Corinthian columns.oneof \vhich measures 10.85 by 9.5 meters and the other 7.2 by 6.75 meters. They have becn datcd to (he Roman imperial era, but here again there is no evi-dence to identify the deities to vvhom they \vere dedicated.
South of the t\vo temples, to the southvvest of the City center, stands a vvell-preserved structure known as the Founder's House. This \vas a Roman mansion built around an unroofed atrium, in the middle of \vhich there vvas a sunken impluvium, a basin for collecting rainvvater. Stili standing at a height of 6 meters, the splendid cntryvvay of the mansion is Doric. The house takes its name from an inscription on the left jamb of the door, vvhich records that the o\vner \vas a "founder of the city," undoubtedly referring to his civic benefactions in Termessos.
«<,•„„,,„,,„>„, ll/C„ri>m,n Tanrl, ■» Termessos. İW», „y Nlfmm
Termessos is surrounded on ali sides except the east by its vast necropolis, vvith mausolea, sarcophagi, and rock-he\vn tombs in the Lycian style covering the slopes of the mountain-side. The most interesting is a rock-hewn tomb at the base of the cliff on the vvestern side of the sile. The tomb has bcen broken
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 21
'jp^
Sanopha^i in Nonnyolis at Termessos
■ -
öpen by grave robbers, vvho smashed the sarcophagus in the burial chamber, but the reliefs on its exterior have survivcd, altlıough badly damaged. The finest of the reliefs shovvs a mounted vvarrior in armor vvith his right hand raised as he pre-pares to throvv a spear; belovv are carvings of a crested helmet, a pair of greaves, a round shield, and a svvord. The style of the relicf dates it to the late fourth ccntury B.C, \vhich suggests that this is the tomb of Alcetas, erected by his follovvers after he killed himself.
After leaving Termessos vve retrace our route to the junction of Highvvays 350 and 650. There vve turn to head north on Highvvay 650, vvhich takes us up from the Pamphylian plain inlo the highlands of Pisidia vvithin the Taurus. A short \vay beyond the junction vve turn left on a road signposted for the Karain Cave, a drive of about eight kilometers north on a route parallel to Highvvay 650.
The Karain Cave vvas first excavated by Turkish archaeolo-gists during the ycars 1946-73. Their fınds, novv exhibitcd in
22
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA !
Rock-hewıı Tomhs in Ilır Neçmptılte tıl Trrıııes.uu
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 23
the Antalya Museum and in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, show that the cave \vas inhabited throughout the Palaeolithic period (30,000-8000 B.C.). The finds include tools and vveapons of both stone and bone along vvith other artifacts.The stone objects include hand-axes, scrapers, and arrovvheads, \vhile among those of bone are avvls, needles, and ornaments. Human remains include teeth and bone frag-mcnts of both Homo sapiens and Neanderthal man, the largest being part of a child's skull. The excavation vvas resumed in 1985, the most important nevv find to date being a cult site near the entrance to the cave.
We retrace our route to Highvvay 650 and continue driving north. As vve do so we see a sign on the right indicating a stretch t of the ancient road from Pamphylia to Pisidia, \vhich passed through the Döşemealtı Gorge at this point. A milestone bearing the date A.D. 6 records that this vvas the Via Sebaste, which led from the Mediterranean coast to Antiocheia in Pisidia. At the foot of the gorge there are the remains of a fortress, a hostel, and a bath, ali of the impcrial Roman era. There is also a five-kilo-meter stretch of the Byzantıne stepped track, known as the cli-max,or ladder, which vvas used by pedestrians and pack animals making their vvay through the gorge. At the upper end of the track are the ruins of an ancient settlement, including a gatevvay, a Hellenistic watchtower, houses, tombs, and severaf Byzantıne churches.
Above the Döşemealtı Gorge the road makes a long bend to the vvest beforc heading northvvard önce again. Near the begin-ning of the bend vve see on our right a Seljuk caravanscrai knovvn as the Kırkgöz Hanı. This vvas built during the reign of Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev II. Its overall dimensions are45.7 by 10.6 meters, vvith its cntryvvay on the south side leading into a court-yard vvith rooms on either side and the main hail on the north side divided into six vaultcd chambers.
Beaufort observed that the Greeks of Antalya spoke only Turkish, as vvas the case elsevvhere in Anatolia at that time. Greek vvas stili used in the Iiturgy of the Greek Orthodox churches in Antalya, though ncither the pricsts nor their congre-gation understood that language, as Beaufort observes in his Karamania:
The population of Adalia probably does not exceed 8000, two-thirds of vvhich I undeutand to be Mohammedan, the other third Greek.These Greeks are acquaintcd »itli no other language tlıaıı Turkish. but though some of their prayers are translated into that language, ıhe principal part of their Iiturgy continues to be repcated in Greek by the Papas, or priests, of vvhom ıhe greater number are as ignorant of the meaning, as their congregalion.
The oldest part of Antalya is the quarter around the port, vvhose monuments inelude struetures from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, and Ottoman pcriods, as vvell as a number of picturesque old Turkish houses, some of vvhich have been vvell restored in recenl years. Around the port quarler there are stili some stretehes of the ancient defense vvalls and tovvers. These fortifications vvere originally built in the Hellenistic period, though most of vvhat novv survives is Roman, along vvith consid-erable parts dating from a reconstruction by Manuel 1 Comnenus (r. 1143-80). Beaufort \vrites of the ancient vvalls in his Karamania, vvhere he refers to the lovvn as Adalia:
Adalia is beautifully situated around a small harbour; the streets appear to rise behind each other like ıhe seats of a theatre; and on the level summit of the hill, the city is enelosed by a diteh, a double vvall, and a scries of square tovvers about fıfty yards asunder. Wc cndeavoured lo obtain permission to pass along the insides of
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 7
the vvalls, and to examine them and the tovvers; bul Ihe Bey reminded us of the rigid lavvs of the empire on thai subjecl, and vvithout absolutely refusing, put it to my feelings vvhether, circumstanced as he vvas vvith regard to the I'orte, I vvould urgc him to do, vvhat his enemies vvould not fail to distort into a grave offence. There vvas no ansvvering this appeal,and vve contented ourselves vvith an extemal vievv.
The course of the ancient city vvalls is follovved by the tvvo main avenues of dovvntovvn Antalya, vvith Cumhuriyet Caddesi bounding the old quarter on the northvvest and Atatürk Caddesi on the northeast. Near the northern end of Cumhuriyet Caddesi, just before it intersects Atatürk Caddesi, vve see the elock tovver, a landmark at the city center. The quarter around the tovver is called the Kale Kapısı, "the Castle Gate," named for one of the long-vanished gatevvays in the ancient vvalls of Antalya. The mosque to the right of the elock tovver is the eighteenth-century Tekeli Mehmet Paşa Camii.
Gale of Hadrian. AnUüyu
The best-preserved streteh of the ancient vvalls is along Atatürk Caddesi, vvhich runs soııtheast from its intersection vvith Cumhuriyet Caddesi and then curves around to the cliffs south of the port. A short vvay along the avenue vve see the Gate of , a monumental propylon (gatevvay) built to celebrate the emperor's vpsit to Attaleia in A.D. 130. The gatevvay, flanked by tvvo huge tovvers of the original Hellenistic vvalls, consists of three coffered arches of equal size, vvith four Corinthian columns standing on detached pedestals in front of the piers that support the arches.
At the seavvard end of Atatürk Caddesi there is another impressive monument of Roman Attaleia—the eolossal tovver knovvn as the Hıdırlık Kulesi. This massive structure, vvhich probably dates from the second century A.D., consists of a square base supporting a round tovver, vvith a poorly built parapet that seems to have been added in the Byzantine era. The tovver resembles the Castel San'Angelo, Hadrian's mausoleum in Rome, and it is believed to have been built as a sepulcher for a local Roman notable.
The most prominent monument in Antalya is the Yivli Minare Camii, "the Mosque vvith the Fluted Minaret," vvhich stands belovv the south side of Cumhuriyet Caddesi some 300 meters from the elock tovver. The fluted shaft of this striking minaret is built of pink-red bricks into vvhich have been set small pieces of blue-green Seljuk tiles. The minaret vvas ereeted by the Seljuk sultan Alaettin Keykubat I (r. 1219-36) in 1219. Originally the minaret vvas attoched to a mosque that had been a Byzantine church before the Seljuk capture of Attaleia in 1207. This edifice vvas replaced in 1373 by the present mosque, vvhich vvas founded by Mehmet Bey, emir of the Hamitoğlu beylik. The interior is covered by three pairs of domes supported by tvvelve columns in three rovvs of four each, some of them surmounted by ancient Ionic and Corinthian capitals. Mehmet Bey also ereeted the türbe (tomb) that stands in the courtyard above the mosque, a distinetive structure vvith a pyramidal roof. This vvas built in 1377 as a sepulcher for Mehmet Bey's eldest son, vvho died before he could succeed his father as emir.The other building in the upper courtyard is an eighteenth-century tekke, or dervish lodgc, used by the Mcvlevis—the famous vvhirling dervishes.
Directly aeross the courtyard from the mosque there are the ruins of tvvo Seljuk medresen, or theological sehools. The isolated portal to the right is ali that remains of the medrese built in 1239 by Sultan Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev II (r. 1236-46). On the other side are the more substantial remains of the medrese founded ca. 1220 by Gıyasettin's father, Alaettin Keykubat I.
Along the vvinding streets in the upper part of the old quarter inside the vvalls there are a number of interesting monuments. One of these is the Karatay Medresesi, founded in 1250 by the vizier Celalettin Karatay, one of the great builders in Seljuk his-tory. Another is the Kesik Minare Camii, "the Mosque vvith the Truncated Minaret." This vvas originally a church dedicated to the Virgin, converted to a mosque after the Seljuk capture of Attaleia. This once-splendid basilica, novv an utter ruin, vvas built in the fıfth century, serving as the cathedral of Byzantine Attaleia until the city fell to the Seljuks.
Hıdırlık Kulesi, Antalya
The Antalya Archaeological Museum is some tvvo kilometers vvest of the tovvn center, approached by dri ving out along Kenan Evren Bulvarı just beyond thejunclion vvith Piri Reis Caddesi. This is one of the most interesting and attractive of ali Ihe local museums in Turkey. it has exhibits from the enlire speetrum of civilizations in southvvestern Turkey, ineluding Pamphylia, Lycia, and Pisidia.The oldest objccts are from the Karain Cave, a Palaeolithic site on the upper tier of the Pamphylian plain. The thirteen rooms in the museum cover the whole range of the area's archaeological past: Palaeolithic, Chalcolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, Iron, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Seljuk, Beylik, and Ottoman. Three rooms are devoted to the ethnological colleetion, vvhich has fascinating exhibits associated vvith the local Yuruks, or nomads.
Our itinerary vvill now take us north from Antalya into Pisidia, the region vvifhin the Taurus Mountains north of the Pamphylian plain. We begin by driving inland on Highvvay 650, the road to Burdur; then after eleven kilometers \ve turn left on Highvvay 350, the road to Korkuteli.
Some seven kilometers along Highvvay 350 vve make a detour lo the right for the Evdir Hanı, a Seljuk caravanserai built by Sultan İzzettin Keykavus I (r. 1210-19), son of Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev I, the conqueror of Attaleia. During the thirteenth century the Seljuks built scores of these caravanserais along the roads of Anatolia as hostels for merehants, greatly stimulating the commerce of the subeontinent. About fifty of these hand-some buildings are stili standing, though almost ali have fallen into ruin; nevertheless-they continue to be impressive land-marks on the othervvise stark and featureless landscapc of cen-tral Anatolia. The Evdir Hanı remained in use almost to the end of the Ottoman era, though by then it had seen better days. This is cvident from the account of Spralt and Forbes in their Travels in Lycia, Milyas and the Cybaritis, published in 1847:
The entrance lo the khan is a magnificeni gatevvay of Saracenic arehitec-lure, highly ornamented. and in part ccmstructed of white marble. The mar-
12
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 13
ble slabs bore inscriptions, probably sentences from the koran. Within is a greaı couri, surrounded by lofty, vaulted cloisters, now partly in ruins; here we lodged, lighting our fire under the arches, and picketing our horses in the quadranglc. The lodging vvas snug cnough, bul had the disadvantage of having been the camp of a mighty army of fleas, vvho forthvviıh, regarding us as natural enemies, proceeded to the attack; and although each of the party literally slevv hundreds, did not seem in the least diminished by the morning. During ıhe night they made incessant efforts to destroy us, and vve arose in a very uncomfortable state and much wounded.
Betvveen the caravanserai and the main road there are the scattered ruins of an ancient city of unknown name. Spratt and Forbes seem to have been the first foreign travelers to report on the site, vvhich they examined in 1842 after their flea-tormented night in the Evdir Hant:
The ruins of the city surrounding the khan appear to be of later date, and are constructed of smali stones vvith mortar. There are several early churches and numerous sarcophagi, which are ranged in double rovvs at the sides of the ancient approaches, forming sacred ways. in the centre are the ruins of a handsome mausoleum. Many of the sarcophagi are inscribed, but although vve examined nearly ali, none of those vvhich are legible presented the name of the city. Nearly ali the inscriptions conclude vvith notice that the fine imposed for violating the tomb should be paid to the gods of Solymi. The most singular feature of the ruins are aqueducts, vvhich intersect the city in ali directions, and are formed from solid vvalls from eight to ten feet high.ThesealI leadoff from a largerand principal duct.that must havecon-veyed a considerable quantity of vvater, judging from the breadth of the channel.
A large number of the sarcophagi menlioned by Spratt and Forbes have survived, most of them half-buried and broken. in the southern part of the site there is a heap of ruins that vvas önce a smali temple, of vvhich there remain huge blocks of its richly sculptured archilrave, as vvell as parts of its coffered ceiling and spirally fluted columns. Also in its vicinity there are tvvo curious sculptural fragments represenling a male figüre mounted on vvhat appears to be a seahorse. George Bcan suggests that the name of the tovvn vvas Anydrus, "Waterless," a place mcntioned in the inscriptions of Termessos, a likely identification in vievv of the numerous vvater channels that it vvas necessary lo create here.
Returning to Highvvay 350, vve continue on for fıve kilometers until vve come to the main entrance of the Termessos National Park, a beautiful vvooded area on the slopes of Güllük Dağı, "the Rosc-Garden Mountain." From the entrance it is a drive of nine kilometers up to the car park belovv the site of ancient Termessos. En route vve pass some of the oullying ruins of the city, fırst a vvatchtovver; then some stretehes of a road knovvn as the King's Way, laid dovvn in the second century A.D.; and finally the base of a ceremonial gatevvay vvhere one enlered the lovver environs of the city. This brings us to the car park, vvhence a steep path leads up to the main site of the city.
Termessos is perehed on a subsidiary summit of the tvvin-peakcd Güllük Dağı, the ancient Mt. Solymus, vvhich rises to an elevation of 1,216 meters abovc sea level. The ancient city is set in a Iandscape of vvild beauty on the summit, its ruins com-pletely overgrovvn vvith trees, thickets, and shrubbery, the tombs and sarcophagi of its necropolis tumbled dovvn the slope of the mountainside in vvild disorder.
Although Termessos is often ineluded vvithin Lycia, it is aetu-ally in Pisidia. The people of Termessos alvvays referred to themselves as Solymoi, the vvarrior race vvho lived in these mountains beforc the coming of the Lycians. Homer, in telling the story of Bellerophon in book VI of The /Had, calls them "the glorious Solymoi."
The first historical reference to Termessos appears in 333 B.C., vvhen Alexander made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city. Arrian deseribes the site of Termessos in his account of Alexander's campaigns, vvhere he mistakenly refers to the city as Telmissus:
The people of Telmissus are an Asiatic race of Pisidian blood; the tovvn stands on a lofty and precipitous height, and the road vvhich leads past it is
14
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA 1
an inconvcııient one. because a ridge runs right down to it from Iho toun above, breaking off short with the road at the boltom, vvhile opposite it, on (hc other side, the ground rises again in an equally steep ascent. The tvvo cliffs make a natural gatcway on the road, so that quite a small force can, by holding the high ground, prevent an enemy from marching through. And this is prccisely vvhat the Telmissians did: they marched out vvith every availablc man anıl oecupied the heights on either side of the road. Alexander, accordingly, gave the order lo halt at önce, convinced that when the enemy savv his men taking up a position for the night they would no longer hold the road in force but withdraw the majority of their tfoops into the tan near by. leaving only a small party on the hills to keep a vvateh-His guess proved right; the main body retired, and only the outposts remained. Alexander then promptly moved to the attack with a force con-sisting of the arehers, the javclin battalions. and the ınore mobile infantry. The small force on the hills, unable to vvithstand the force of his missiles, abandoned the position, and Alexander moved on through the narrovv pas-sage and took up a fresh position near the town.
Alexander eventually abandoned his attempt to capture Termessos, realizing that it vvould not be possible to reduce it without a long siege. And so he broke off the siege and vvent on to attack the other cities of Pisidia, some of vvhich, according to Arrian, "he took by storm, |while) others surrendered to him without resistance."
Fourteen years later the city vvas attacked by Anligonus, one of the Diadochi, the generals of Ale.tander vvho divided up his empire after his death in 323 B.c. At the time Termessos vvas being held by another of AIexander's former generals named Alcetas, vvho vvas supportcd by the younger citizens of the city. The elders of Termessos, unvvilling to facc a siege, sent vvord to the enemy camp that they vvould seize Alcetas and turn him över dead or alive to Antigonus. Alcetas learned of this plot only after his supporters had been dravvn avvay from Termessos by a ruse, and vvhen the city elders attempted to take hold of him he committed suicide rather than surrender. The elders thereupon sent his body to Antigonus, vvho vvas frustrated in his attempt to take Termessos vvhen the supporters of Alcetas relurned and took control of the city. Antigonus then placcd the body of
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 15
Alcetas in a prominent spot vvhere it could be seen from the vvalls of Termessos, and for three days he subjected the corpse to unspeakable indignities, attempting to provoke the defenders into making a foray outside the city. When there vvas no response after three days Antigonus gave up in frustration and marched his army avvay, after vvhich the supporters of Alcetas took the mangled body of their dead leader and buried it vvith great honors, aftervvards ereeting a splendid memorial över his grave.
A short vvay to the right of the car park vve see a ceremonial gatevvay knovvn as the Propylon of Hadrian. The propylon marked the entrance to the temenos (sacred precinet) of a temple, novv in ruins, and presumably dedicated to Hadrian (r. 117-38). The remains indicate that this vvas an Ionic peripteral temple vvith a cella 8 meters in vvidth, of vvhich the principal remnant is the doorvvay vvith its finely carved lintel, surrounded by numerous architectural fragments.
The path to the summit follovvs much the samc course as the uppermost streteh of the King's Way. This takes us through the inner defense vvall, vvhere vve see the remains of a gatevvay and a vvatchtovver. The inner east vvall of the gatevvay bears an inseription that George Bean has interpreted as the beginning of a "dice oracle," one of many such examples in Asia Minör. The dice used vvere knovvn as astragal i. They vvere the neck bones of a sheep or other animal, vvhich could land vvith one of four sides facing up, each of vvhich vvas given a numerical value. Usually five astragali vvere throvvn, giving a set of five numbers. Each of the resulting fıve-digit numbers corresponded to a pronounce-ment of the oracle in verse, almost alvvays a response to a ques-tion put by the pilgrim at the shrine. As Bean vvrites about these oracular verses: 'There is a remarkable sameness about the responses, and it seems that the elient vvas expected to ask only about the advisability of some course of action; the god's advicc is in effect confined to tvvo alternatives: 'Go ahead,' or 'Wait.' The elient might save himself trouble by flipping a coin."
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 17
Continuing upvvard along the path, \ve now ascend a flight of steps and pass through the inner fortifıcation wall, an impressive structure that in part is standing to its ful I height. Here vve see on our left the extensive ruins of a gymnasium, unexcavated and completely overgrovvn. On our right are the remains of a long street önce bordered on both sides by colonnaded stoas lined \vith shops, vvith statues betvveen the columns and sometimes in front of them as vvell, forty-seven sculptures in ali. Only the bases of the statues have survived, more than half of them honoring victors in the games.almost exclusively vvrestlers, the others commemorating priests, magistrates and other officials. After vve pass the colonnaded street, the path divides, and vve take the left fork to approach the city center.
This brings us to the agora, vvhich is in total ruins and com¬pletely overgrovvn. The agora is bordered on its northvvest side by a tvvo-storied Doric stoa vvhich bears an inscription record-ing that it vvas dedicated by Attalus II of Pergamum. Attalus probably dedicated the stoa as an act of gratitude to the Termessians for having fought as his allies during the siege of the Pisidian city of Selge, long an enemy of Termessos. Beneath this side of the agora there are five deep cisterns, to vvhich vvater vvas conducted by an aqueduct. On the northeast side of the agora there vvas a similar stoa erected in the Roman era by a vvealthy citizen of Termessos named Osbaras. At the southvvest corner of the agora a large outcropping of rock has been carved into a heroon, the tomb and shrine of a deified hero. Three niches on the vvest side of the rock vvere presumably receptacles for dedicatory offerings to the hero.
Beyond the agora to the vvest is the vvell-preserved theater, standing on a spectacular site facing vvest across the inlervening valley tovvard the tvvin peaks of Mt. Solymus. The structure dates from the Hellenistic period, and though rebuilt in the Roman era, it retains its original Greek plan—the cavea (area vvhere the theatergoers sat) forming more than a semicircle. The
18 PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
NORTH FROM ANTALYA
19
Theater, Termessos
t\vo paradoi that scparate the cavea ffom the stage building vvere originally öpen, in the Greek style, but in the Roman imperial era the southern one vvas replaced by a covered passagevvay when the auditorium vvas expanded on that side. The stage building, vvhich in its present form seems to date from the late second century A.D., comprises only the stage and a long and narrovv room behind it. The auditorium has one diazoma (the passage that divided the lower from the upper rows of seals), vvith sixteen rovvs of seats belovv and eight above, giving an estimaled capacity of 4,200 spectators.The main entrance to the auditorium is by an arched doorvvay in the middle of the rear vvall, from vvhcre a broad stairvvay leads do\vn to the diazoma. The keystonc in the arch of the doorvvay supported a statue of the youthful Heracles, dedicated by the city.
South of the theater there is an unusually vvell-preserved building, its vvalls in some placcs standing to a height of almost 10 meters.This has bcen identified as an odeion, or conçert hail, although il ma\ also havc served as the bouleuterion.or council
house.The building dates from the Hcllcnistic period,and com-bines both Doric and Ionic elements in its design, most notably in the pilasters in the upper parts of ils outer face.
Just to the west of the odeion are the remains of a beautifully constructed temple comprising only a cella, measuring 6.1 by 7.36 meters, its vvalls stili standing to a height of 4 meters. The Austrian archaeologists vvho excavated this temple bel i eve that it vvas dedicated to Zeus Solymeus, the patron deity of Termessos.
There are the remains of another temple just to the south of the odeion. This is a vvell-preserved prostyle temple (one vvith a pronaos, or front porch), ils square cella measuring 5.5 meters on each side. The temple vvas dedicated to Artemis, as noted in an inseription on the lintel of the perfectly preserved door. The inseription also records that the temple and its cult statue of Artemis vvere endovved by Aurelia Armasta, vvith the help of her husband, and that the decoration and si\ silver images ol the goddess vvere paid for by her mother. The temple has been dated to the first half of the third century A.D.
Southeast of this edifice there are the foundations of an ear-lier temple of Artemis. The architectural fragments indicate that this vvas a peripteral Doric hexastyle temple vvith six columns at the ends and eleven on the sides, dating from the mid-second century A.D. One of the reliefs vvith vvhich the temple vvas decorated shovvs Artemis in the sacrificial scene from Iphigenia in Aulis, the tragedy by Euripides.
There is another temple just to the south of this earlier sanc-tuary of Artemis. This is a templum-in-antis vvith Corinthian columns, its cella measureş 6.9 by 5.78 meters and stands on a highpodium. Architectural fragments indicate that the temple dates from the late Roman period, but there is no evidence to identify the deity to vvhom it vvas dedicated.
There are tvvo more temples to the vvest of the city center, south and southeast of the Stoa of Attalus. Thcy are proslyle
20 PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA 1
temples \vith Corinthian columns.oneof \vhich measures 10.85 by 9.5 meters and the other 7.2 by 6.75 meters. They have becn datcd to (he Roman imperial era, but here again there is no evi-dence to identify the deities to vvhom they \vere dedicated.
South of the t\vo temples, to the southvvest of the City center, stands a vvell-preserved structure known as the Founder's House. This \vas a Roman mansion built around an unroofed atrium, in the middle of \vhich there vvas a sunken impluvium, a basin for collecting rainvvater. Stili standing at a height of 6 meters, the splendid cntryvvay of the mansion is Doric. The house takes its name from an inscription on the left jamb of the door, vvhich records that the o\vner \vas a "founder of the city," undoubtedly referring to his civic benefactions in Termessos.
«<,•„„,,„,,„>„, ll/C„ri>m,n Tanrl, ■» Termessos. İW», „y Nlfmm
Termessos is surrounded on ali sides except the east by its vast necropolis, vvith mausolea, sarcophagi, and rock-he\vn tombs in the Lycian style covering the slopes of the mountain-side. The most interesting is a rock-hewn tomb at the base of the cliff on the vvestern side of the sile. The tomb has bcen broken
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 21
'jp^
Sanopha^i in Nonnyolis at Termessos
■ -
öpen by grave robbers, vvho smashed the sarcophagus in the burial chamber, but the reliefs on its exterior have survivcd, altlıough badly damaged. The finest of the reliefs shovvs a mounted vvarrior in armor vvith his right hand raised as he pre-pares to throvv a spear; belovv are carvings of a crested helmet, a pair of greaves, a round shield, and a svvord. The style of the relicf dates it to the late fourth ccntury B.C, \vhich suggests that this is the tomb of Alcetas, erected by his follovvers after he killed himself.
After leaving Termessos vve retrace our route to the junction of Highvvays 350 and 650. There vve turn to head north on Highvvay 650, vvhich takes us up from the Pamphylian plain inlo the highlands of Pisidia vvithin the Taurus. A short \vay beyond the junction vve turn left on a road signposted for the Karain Cave, a drive of about eight kilometers north on a route parallel to Highvvay 650.
The Karain Cave vvas first excavated by Turkish archaeolo-gists during the ycars 1946-73. Their fınds, novv exhibitcd in
22
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA !
Rock-hewıı Tomhs in Ilır Neçmptılte tıl Trrıııes.uu
NORTH FROM ANTALYA 23
the Antalya Museum and in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara, show that the cave \vas inhabited throughout the Palaeolithic period (30,000-8000 B.C.). The finds include tools and vveapons of both stone and bone along vvith other artifacts.The stone objects include hand-axes, scrapers, and arrovvheads, \vhile among those of bone are avvls, needles, and ornaments. Human remains include teeth and bone frag-mcnts of both Homo sapiens and Neanderthal man, the largest being part of a child's skull. The excavation vvas resumed in 1985, the most important nevv find to date being a cult site near the entrance to the cave.
We retrace our route to Highvvay 650 and continue driving north. As vve do so we see a sign on the right indicating a stretch t of the ancient road from Pamphylia to Pisidia, \vhich passed through the Döşemealtı Gorge at this point. A milestone bearing the date A.D. 6 records that this vvas the Via Sebaste, which led from the Mediterranean coast to Antiocheia in Pisidia. At the foot of the gorge there are the remains of a fortress, a hostel, and a bath, ali of the impcrial Roman era. There is also a five-kilo-meter stretch of the Byzantıne stepped track, known as the cli-max,or ladder, which vvas used by pedestrians and pack animals making their vvay through the gorge. At the upper end of the track are the ruins of an ancient settlement, including a gatevvay, a Hellenistic watchtower, houses, tombs, and severaf Byzantıne churches.
Above the Döşemealtı Gorge the road makes a long bend to the vvest beforc heading northvvard önce again. Near the begin-ning of the bend vve see on our right a Seljuk caravanscrai knovvn as the Kırkgöz Hanı. This vvas built during the reign of Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev II. Its overall dimensions are45.7 by 10.6 meters, vvith its cntryvvay on the south side leading into a court-yard vvith rooms on either side and the main hail on the north side divided into six vaultcd chambers.
NORTH KROM ANTALYA
Wc stayed here at the college mosque of the tovvn, the principal of vvhich was Shaykh Shihab ad-Din al-Hamavvi. Novv in ali the lands inhabited by the Turkmens in Anatolia, in every district, tovvn, and village, there are to be found members of the organization knovvn as the Akhiya or Young Brotherhood. Novvhcre in the vvorld vvill you find men so eager to vveleome slrangers, so prompt to serve food and to salisfy the vvants of others, and so ready to suppress injustice and to kili ftyrannicall agents of poliçe and the misereants vvho join vvith them. A young brother, or akhi in their language, is one vvho is chosen by ali the members of his trade IguildJ, or by other young unmarried men, or those vvho live in ascetic retreaı, to be their leader. Their organization is knovvn also as the Futuvva, or Order of Youth. The leader builds a hospice and furnishes it vvith rugs, lamps and other appli-ances. The members of his community vvork during the day to gain their livelihood, and bring him vvhat they have earned in the late afternoon. With this they buy fruit, food, and the other things vvhich the hospice requires for their use. If a traveller comes to the tovvn thal day they lodgc him in their hospice; these provisions serve for his entertainment as their guest, and he stays vvith them until he goes avvay. If there are no travellers they them¬selves assemble to partake of the food, and having eaten it they sing and dance. On the morrovv they return to their oecupations and bring their earn-ings to their leader in the late afternoon. The members are called fityan (youths), and their leader, as vve have said, is the ahi.
The day after our arrival at Antaliya one of these youths came to Shaykh Shihab ad-Din al-Hamavvi and spoke to him in Turkish, vvhich I did not understand at that time. He vvas vvearing old clothes and had a felt bonnet on his head. The shaykh said to me 'Do you knovv vvhat he is saying?' 'No' said I T do not knovv.' He ansvvered 'He is inviting you and your company to eat a meal vvith him.' I vvas astonished but 1 said 'Very vvell,' and vvhen the man had göne I said to the shaykh 'He is a poor man, and is not able to entertain us, and vve do not like to be a burden on him.' The shaykh burst out laughing and said 'He is one of the shaykhs of the Young Brotherhood. He is a cobbler, and a man of generous disposition. His comrades, about two hundred men belonging to different trades, have made him their leader and have built a hospice to entertain their guests. AH that they earn by day they spend at night.'
After I had prayed the sunset prayer the same man came back for us and took us to the hospice. We found [ourselves in] a fine building, carpeted vvith beautiful Turkish rugs and lit by a large number of chandeüers of lraqi glass.A number of young men stood in rovvs in the hail, vvearing long man-tles and boots, and each had a knife about tvvo cubits long attached to a gir-dle about his vvaist. On their heads vvere vvhite vvoolen bonnets.and attached to the peak of their bonnets vvas a piece of stuff a cubit long and tvvo fingers in breadth. Whcn they took their seats, every man removcd his bonnet and
The day after our arrival at Antaliya one of these youths came to Shaykh Shihab ad-Din al-Hamavvi and spoke to him in Turkish, vvhich I did not understand at that time. He vvas vvearing old clothes and had a felt bonnet on his head. The shaykh said to me 'Do you knovv vvhat he is saying?' 'No' said I T do not knovv.' He ansvvered 'He is inviting you and your company to eat a meal vvith him.' I vvas astonished but 1 said 'Very vvell,' and vvhen the man had göne I said to the shaykh 'He is a poor man, and is not able to entertain us, and vve do not like to be a burden on him.' The shaykh burst out laughing and said 'He is one of the shaykhs of the Young Brotherhood. He is a cobbler, and a man of generous disposition. His comrades, about two hundred men belonging to different trades, have made him their leader and have built a hospice to entertain their guests. AH that they earn by day they spend at night.'
After I had prayed the sunset prayer the same man came back for us and took us to the hospice. We found [ourselves in] a fine building, carpeted vvith beautiful Turkish rugs and lit by a large number of chandeüers of lraqi glass.A number of young men stood in rovvs in the hail, vvearing long man-tles and boots, and each had a knife about tvvo cubits long attached to a gir-dle about his vvaist. On their heads vvere vvhite vvoolen bonnets.and attached to the peak of their bonnets vvas a piece of stuff a cubit long and tvvo fingers in breadth. Whcn they took their seats, every man removcd his bonnet and
PAMPHYLIA AND PISIDIA I
Adalia vvas captured in 1207 by the Seljuk Turks under Sullan Gıyasettin Keyhüsrev I (r. 1204-10), and in Turkish it came to be called Antalya. Late in Ihe thirteenth century Antalya fell to the Hamitoğlu Türkmen tribe, vvhose chieftain soon gave it över to his vassal, the emir of the Tekke beylik. The Tekke emirs held Antalya until 1361, when it vvas captured by Peter de Lusignan I, king of Cyprus, vvho kept it until he vvas assassinated eight years later. The city then reverted to the Hamitoğlu, vvho held it until it vvas captured by Murat I in 1387, after vvhich it became a per-manent part of the Ottoman empire.
Like most other tovvns in Anatolia, Antalya had a substantial populalion of non-Muslim minorities in Turkish times, vvith each cthnic or religious group living in its ovvn quarter, as the fourteenth-century Arab traveler Ibn Battuta remarks in his Journal:
From Alaya |Alanya| I vvent to Antaliya, a most bcautiful city. İt covers an immense area, and though of vast bulk is onc of the most atlractive towns to be seen anywhere. besides bcing exceedingly populous and vvell laid out. Each section of the inhabitants lives in a separate quarter. The Christian merehants livc in a qııarter of the lo\vn known as the Mina |the Port|. and are surrounded by a vvall, the gates of vvhich are shut upon them from vvith-out at night and during the Friday service. The Greeks, vvho vvere its former inhabitants, live by themselves in another, and the king and his court and the mamluks in another, each of these quarters being vvalled off likevvise. The rest of the Muslims live in the main city. Round the vvhole tovvn and ali the quarters mentioned there is another great vvall.The tovvn contains many orchards and produces fine fruit, ineluding an admirable kind of apricot, called by them Qamar ad-Din, vvhich has a svveet almond in its kernel. This fruit is dried and exported to Egypt, vvhere it is regardcd as a great luxury.
Ibn Battuta goes on to teli of an cvening he spent in Antalya at a hospice run by the local branch of the Ahi, a Müslim broth-erhood organized by the craft guilds of Anatolia, vvho vvere famous for thcir hospitality:
Like most other tovvns in Anatolia, Antalya had a substantial populalion of non-Muslim minorities in Turkish times, vvith each cthnic or religious group living in its ovvn quarter, as the fourteenth-century Arab traveler Ibn Battuta remarks in his Journal:
From Alaya |Alanya| I vvent to Antaliya, a most bcautiful city. İt covers an immense area, and though of vast bulk is onc of the most atlractive towns to be seen anywhere. besides bcing exceedingly populous and vvell laid out. Each section of the inhabitants lives in a separate quarter. The Christian merehants livc in a qııarter of the lo\vn known as the Mina |the Port|. and are surrounded by a vvall, the gates of vvhich are shut upon them from vvith-out at night and during the Friday service. The Greeks, vvho vvere its former inhabitants, live by themselves in another, and the king and his court and the mamluks in another, each of these quarters being vvalled off likevvise. The rest of the Muslims live in the main city. Round the vvhole tovvn and ali the quarters mentioned there is another great vvall.The tovvn contains many orchards and produces fine fruit, ineluding an admirable kind of apricot, called by them Qamar ad-Din, vvhich has a svveet almond in its kernel. This fruit is dried and exported to Egypt, vvhere it is regardcd as a great luxury.
Ibn Battuta goes on to teli of an cvening he spent in Antalya at a hospice run by the local branch of the Ahi, a Müslim broth-erhood organized by the craft guilds of Anatolia, vvho vvere famous for thcir hospitality:
TURKISH SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION
Antalya has the most magnifıcent setting of ali the cities on the Mediterranean coast of Turkcy. it stands at the head of the immense gulf that bears its name, vvith the mighty ramparts of Mt. Climax and the olher Lycian mountains looming to the south-vvest, the Taurus range tovvering tier on tier to the north, and the lush subtropical Pamphylian plain vvith its immensely long beaches stretching off tovvards the horizon and Cilicia to thc cast. Looking northward up the Gulf of Antalya tovvard Mt. Climax, vvhose name in Greek means "ladder," Francis Beaufort describes the scene thus in his Karamania, vvhich vvas published in 1818:
From Ihis bay a chain of mountains extends along the shore to the north-ward. Their outline is extremely broken and picturesque, peak rising on peak in succession, as they recede from the shore. These mountains undoubtedly formed the antient Mount Climax, and the analogy is striking between that name and the regular gradations in vvhich they overtop each other.
Antalya vvas originally called Attaleia, after Attalus II of Pergamum (r. 159-138 b.c), founder of the city. Attalus, vvho intended his city to be the main Pergamene port on the Mediterranean coast, enclosed it vvith a circuit of defense vvalls and tovvers that vvere rebuilt in Roman times and stili survive today, though mostly in ruins. Attaleia vvas the principal port of Pamphylia throughout the rest of antiquity and on into the Byzantine era, vvhen it vvas knovvn as Adalia. During the Crusades Adalia often served as a port for the Christian armies that sailed from here to the Levant to avoid the long and difficult march across Asia Minör.
From Ihis bay a chain of mountains extends along the shore to the north-ward. Their outline is extremely broken and picturesque, peak rising on peak in succession, as they recede from the shore. These mountains undoubtedly formed the antient Mount Climax, and the analogy is striking between that name and the regular gradations in vvhich they overtop each other.
Antalya vvas originally called Attaleia, after Attalus II of Pergamum (r. 159-138 b.c), founder of the city. Attalus, vvho intended his city to be the main Pergamene port on the Mediterranean coast, enclosed it vvith a circuit of defense vvalls and tovvers that vvere rebuilt in Roman times and stili survive today, though mostly in ruins. Attaleia vvas the principal port of Pamphylia throughout the rest of antiquity and on into the Byzantine era, vvhen it vvas knovvn as Adalia. During the Crusades Adalia often served as a port for the Christian armies that sailed from here to the Levant to avoid the long and difficult march across Asia Minör.
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